CVA
ACFP
A CVA OCCASIONAL PAPER

TRAINING
FOR MASTFRY
IN SECONDARY
VOCATIONAL
EDUCATION

by

D.G. Crawford Ph.D.

This is one of a series of occasional papers planned or published by
the Canadian Vocational Association. The views expressed do not
necessarily represent the views of the Association.

The Canadian Vocational Association serves the professional
needs of people in secondary and post-secondary institutions,
government, business, industry and labour who are concerned with
the present and future education and training needs of Canada’s
labour force. Specifically, the Association aims to:

Establish and maintain active national
leadership in all types of vocational
education.

Render service to provincial and local
communities in promoting vocational
education.
Provide a national forum for the study
and discussion of vocational education.
Encourage
the
promotion
and
improvement of all vocational programs
within the context of lifelong learning.

•

cva
acfp
For further information about the series, or the Association,
contact:

Canadian Vocational Association
P. O. Box 3435, Station D
Ottawa, Ontario KIP 6L4
Tel: (613) 727-0532

TRAINING FOR MASTERY IN SECONDARY
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
by
D.G. Crawford, Ph. D.

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

DOUG CRAWFORD, Ph.D.
Born and raised in Vancouver, B.C., Dr. Crawford earned his BA and
MA in psychology at the University of B.C.: he practiced as a clinical
psychologist for a number of years. He then shifted his interests to
education, and taught grades 7 - 10 in Burnaby, B.C. Dr. Crawford
then earned his PhD in Educational Theory at the University of
Toronto, where he taught graduate students at the Ontario Institute
for Studies in Education and at the Faculty of Education focusing on
instructional psychology, instructional technology and instructional
systems. He moved back West in 1973 to assist in the establishment of
Athabasca University in Edmonton. Most of his time in Edmonton,
however, was spent as Director, Learning Systems Branch, Alberta
Advanced Education.

Dr. Crawford retired from government in 1987, and returned to
Athabasca University as Director of the Training for Improved
Performance (TIP) project - a three-year initiative co-sponsored by
Employment and Immigration Canada (Canadian Jobs Strategy) and
the University. The TIP project, which terminated in February, 1990,
was designed to apply systems concepts to training in business,
industry and the public sector. Dr. Crawford is now a training and
education consultant in the Edmonton area.

© Canadian Vocational Association
September 1990

2

TRAINING FOR MASTERY IN SECONDARY
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

The theme of the Canadian Vocational Association’s 25th Annual
Conference in Toronto, June 11 - 14,1989 was “Renewing Canada’s
Skills Base”. The Conference announcement stated that “Canada
faces a skilled labour crises... (and) unless we can find ways to better
develop and utilize our human resources, our economy and our
standard of living will inevitably decline relative to our international
competitors”. Citing an excerpt from the Globe and Mail of January
23, 1989, the announcement began:

“Canadian businesses, increasingly running into
production difficulties because they cannot find
enough skilled employees, can expect the problem
to get worse in the 1990’s unless education and
training policies change. That’s the conclusion
reached by the Canadian Labour Market and
Productivity Centre in its latest quarterly review...
There is an overwhelming case for making training
and education a priority in addressing current
labour-market problems...”

A similar focus on improving our education/training system was
contained in the Report of the Advisory Council on Adjustment. The
Council stated that although skill requirements are becoming more
sophisticated as Canada is now well into the “information age”,
“... significant segments of the Canadian population are not equipped
to meet the challenge this change represents” (de Grandpre, 1989, p.

3

28) . Citing a number of worrisome statistics about the lack of basic
skills and competencies of our adults and recent high school
graduates, the Council recommends that:

“On an urgent basis, the first ministers find the
appropriate vehicle to review the education/training
systems in order to increase their responsiveness to
the requirements of rapidly changing international
and domestic economies. Such a vehicle should
involve participation by both business and labour,
and might take the form of a federal-provincial
royal commission on education/training” (de
Grandpre, 1989, p. 33).

A critical component of Canada’s education and training is the system
of technical vocational secondary schools. Focusing specifically on
secondary vocational education, Glendenning (1989) identified a
number of critical issues that require attention since
“... many educators, academic and vocational, are concerned about
its survival and more importantly, the negative impact its demise
would have on the education of our young people”. Twelve issues
were identified as requiring attention, ranging from the definition of
the term vocational education and its image, through issues pertaining
to the nature of its curriculum, requirements for graduation, type of
staffing and certification, and the administration and organization of
schools.

Similar themes emerged in a recent review of vocational education in
Alberta. While it was not the purpose of this paper to examine
provincial responses to the kinds of issues facing secondary
vocational education in Canada, the Alberta review exemplifies a
provincial response to the kind of issues identified by Glendenning
and the Advisory Council, and provides a context for the proposal
which is the focus of this paper.
4

A synopsis of some of the trends and issues identified by Alberta
Education suggests that new forms of schooling are needed; that some
students require more time and patience, and more novel and different
ways of teaching; that changes in the curriculum are required since
students perceive that the curriculum itself leads to dropping out of
school; that clarity of linkages between school and work are needed to
support school projects; and that findings from major breakthroughs
in instructional theory should guide both curriculum design and
implementation of the practical arts (Alberta Education, May 1989,
pp. 22 - 32). The document lists a host of challenges posed by the
above, including:

(a) establishing appropriate uses of technology and
learning resources to improve the quality of and
access to learning in the practical arts;
(b) determining strategies to allow practical arts
teachers to design programs based on the level of
student competency (e.g., challenge exams, waiver
of prerequisites, provision for greater entry and exit
points);

(c) assessing the degree to which individualization is
feasible;

(d) developing suitable instructional materials for
students and teachers;

(e) defining how basic academic skills
(mathematics, science, language arts) can be
reinforced within the practical arts and extend
practical skills for wider applicability;

(f) providing information on the linkages between
courses and occupations;
5

(g) considering strategies to expand access to
programs (e.g., advancement by competency);
(h) defining innovative curricular and delivery
alternatives for practical arts;
(i) increasing business/industry’s understanding
about learning outcomes expected in practical arts
courses (develop more open channels of
communication);
(j) establishing sequences and strategies to reinforce
basic skills and resource use;
(k) encouraging strategies that teach more
“methods and procedure” than just “discovery and
testing”; and

(1) reinforcing opportunities to combine a variety of
learning modalties to achieve required goals
(learning outcomes) (Alberta Education, May,
1989, pp 45 - 48).

Another Alberta report outlined programs and courses in a few
schools which are exploring adaptations and changes in the curricula
and delivery system (Alberta Education, 1989 (a). A third report
proposed directions for change in the practical arts programs in
Alberta, including scenarios for supporting alternate strategies for
program delivery and a modularized competency-based curriculum
(Alberta Education, 1989, (b), p. 21). The same report correctly noted
that successful implementation of the directions for change outlined
would require the cooperative efforts of “... Alberta Education, school
systems, schools, teachers and counsellors, other government
departments, business/industry, and community members” (p 28).
6

In what follows, a new model or paradigm for technical vocational
training at the high school level is proposed. The new model is
designed to address many of the trends, issues and challenges referred
to above. To do so, it will pose an alternative to the structure,
organization, management and delivery of instruction associated with
the traditional secondary technical vocational grade school. It
proposes a new way of delivering secondary vocational training that
could be more effective, efficient and feasible - for students,
instructors, business/industry and the community. What is argued is
that Canada needs a new paradigm - an alternative model of
schooling - particularly for young adults preparing to enter the world
of work, and for older adults returning to school in order to complete
their training, so that they will be better prepared for retraining in a
rapidly changing labor market. In the absence of operating
alternatives to the traditional graded school, parents and governments
have no way of assessing the merits of alternative models. In spite of
the many heroic efforts of educators to grapple with the calls for
“more”, “better”, “more relevant”, etc., the structure, organization
and management of the graded school makes such efforts difficult at
best.

Cuban (June, 1989) develops a cogent critique of the graded school,
noting that it is a relatively recent development. He argues that some
historians relate the rise of the graded school to the rise of the factory
system of manufacturing, seeing it as an attempt to rationalize the
provision of educational services. Thus the graded school philosophy
was that students possess equal mental and physical capacity at any
given age; have equal amounts of help available from their families;
and will be taught by institutions whose staffs are more or less of equal
capability. Implicit in this philosophy is that educational quality and
standardization of outcome is attained through uniform treatment.
While this may be a laudible democratic ideal, it does not square with
reality. Further, as Cuban points out, because of its historical success,
the structure and organization of graded schools is viewed as
legitimate by the community in which they operate and by most
people in our society. Thus, he argues, the structure helps legitimate
the ideas, behaviour and attitudes of instructors, students and parents.
For example, failure “to make the grade” is routinely directed to the
student, the family or the sub-culture - not the school. He argues that it

7

is time to re-examine the institution of the graded school and
determine the degree to which it is the source of many of the problems
facing our educational system.

This paper, however, does not argue that all traditional schools are all
bad for all students. What is proposed is one alternative to the
traditional graded high school for a particular clientele. The central
purpose of the proposal is to develop, implement and test mastery
learning in a continuous-progress, non-graded environment at the
high school level. What is proposed is not a panacea: it is an
alternative which requires development and pilot testing. The
proposal focuses on those aspects of the learning environment that
must be developed to test this alternative.

None of the specific changes proposed is new. What is new is the
orchestration of each of them in promoting mastery learning for the
complete curriculum in a technical vocational high school setting.
The implementation of a non-graded, continuous-progress school
promoting mastery learning for each student requires a ground-up
reorganization of the structure, management, and process of
implementing instruction. This calls for new roles for students,
teachers and administrators, and for new configurations of existing
learning resources in the service of mastery learning.

THE PROPOSAL

It is proposed that one or more continuous-progress non-graded
schools be established to promote mastery learning for students age
16 or older and providing the certified equivalent of Grade 10 through
Grade 12.

8

BASIC CONCEPTS

Mastery Learning

The basic concept is that most students, perhaps as many as 90%, can
become similar in their level of achievement, rate of learning and
motivation for further learning when provided with favorable
learning conditions.

At present, at the end of a course, students vary greatly in level of
achievement, rate of learning of new ideas, and motivation for further
learning. Evidence from mastery-learning research shows that this
variation need not occur and that, if it does occur, it is the fault of the
instructional system and not of any in-built characteristics of learners.
This typical skewing of achievement distributions for mastery and
non-mastery groups is schematized in Fig.l.

Figure 1. Comparison of Typical Final Achievement Distributions for
Mastery and Non Mastery Groups

Typical Distribution
for Mastery Groups
Typical Distribution for

9

In general terms, mastery learning strategies include the following.

(a) Mastery is defined in terms of
defined objectives, skills, or
competencies.
(b) The student is provided with a
pre-test to assess his prerequisite
knowledge before the first unit.
(c) If any of the prerequisites are
missing, the student receives
remediation
(d) The instruction is organized
into
systematically
arranged
units.

(e) Diagnostic progress tests are
administered at the completion of
each unit. An arbitrary level of
mastery is determined (e.g.,
85%).
(f) On the basis of the diagnosis,
each
student’s
learning
is
supplemented by appropriate
instructional resources.

(g) After this the student moves on
to the next unit.

10

etc.

The Learning System

In order to maximize the implementation of a mastery-learning
paradigm, it is proposed to organize the school around three
integrated learning sub-systems - guided independent study using
modified correspondence-school lessons; small group seminars
(learning circles); and, in-depth projects (community partnerships).
All of the above require the support of micro-computer/
communications facilities.

1. Guided Independent Study. The first learning
subsystem requires the development and use of
self-study learning material. It is suggested that
11

learning material already available in the form of
correspondence lessons be used as a point of
departure
for
the
preparation
of
the
competence-based independent study packages.
The courses selected would be the choice of the
school staff. The skills and competencies to be
learned through guided independent study would be
consistent with whatever guidelines are in place for
the province in which the school is located. The
independent study material is composed of small
sub-units explicitly designed to promote specific
skills and competencies. These, in turn, are derived
from an analysis of what skills and competencies are
deemed desirable by the school. Therefore, school
staff would have an opportunity to reconfigure and
renew the vocational curriculum in their
jurisdiction, perhaps working in close collaboration
with business and industry in the community. This
opportunity is an important feature of this proposal,
given the current rethinking and review of
curriculum in vocational education. Also, in order to
increase the probability of mastery of the skills and
competencies comprising each lesson, the following
two principles must be incorporated into the first
learning subsystem.

a) Realignment. It is necessary to articulate learning
objectives for each unit and sub-unit for each
correspondence lesson; to ensure that both the
embedded self tests and the end-of-unit mastery
tests for credit adequately test the objectives and the
domain of subject matter in the unit/lesson; and to
verify that the content and instructional exercises
are relevant to both the objectives and the tests. Thus
objectives, instruction and testing are aligned.

It is important to note that all the test items must be
designed as criterion-referenced items, and not

12

norm-referenced items. This means that the criteria
to be achieved are expressed in terms of desired
performance levels on related tests, with students
being required to achieve those levels in order to
receive credit for what they have learned. This is a
key difference between the proposed school and
traditional schools: it underscores an entirely
different set of values and philosophy. Test
procedures in traditional schools are deliberately
designed to differentiate between students. For
example, test items are specifically designed to
differentiate between weak students and strong
ones. In contrast, criterion-referenced items test
mastery of a set of predetermined competencies
(desired performance levels), and the test items are
specifically crafted to sample the total domain of
skills and competencies making up that domain.
This is a difference that permeates marking,
recording student achievement (student transcripts),
and communicating a new approach to the public.

b) Tutors. The second principle is to augment the
realigned learning material with tutor/guides. The
learning material, while designed to be
self-instructional, requires the availability of
tutor/guides to provide emotional support, technical
help, and motivational/pacing support. This is
crucial to the success of the sub-system. Indeed, the
power of tutorial instruction is well documented,
and in combination with the modified aligned
self-study material, the promotion of mastery of the
skills and competencies in the selected curricula is
then highly probable. The tutor/guides need not be
certified teachers. Graduate students (i.e.,
pre-service teacher-trainees), retired instructors and
members of the local community could well serve in
this capacity. All would be supervised by the
Learning Manager (a provincially certified teacher)
responsible for the particular subject area.
13

2. Learning Circles. The second learning
sub-system consists of controlled small group
seminars or learning circles. As a group of students
(8-10) achieve mastery of a learning domain or set
of units, they are scheduled into seminars. The
purpose of this learning sub-system is to: promote
higher-order cognitive skills (analysis, synthesis,
problem solving); provide opportunities to engage in
oral debate/discussion among peers, all of whom
have achieved a basic minimum standard of
knowledge concerning the issues to be discussed;
and enable and encourage the development of
individual student interest in topics/projects they
wish to pursue in depth (see below). The total
number of seminars for each course would be
determined by the Learning Manager (LM) for the
course.

3. In-depth Projects (Community Partnerships).
The third sub-system grows out of activities 1 and 2.
Each student would engage in several in-depth
projects using community resources. Each project
would be a learning contract, with a
mutually-agreed work-plan signed by the student,
the LM and the community partners.

Unique Attributes of the Alternate School

The following attributes will ensue from full implementation of this
initiative.

1. A continuous-progress, non-graded learning
environment. Since there are no “classes” and
“grades”, students could, depending on resources,
enrol at any time of the year and, theoretically attend
14

during any time of the day or night. As is sketched
out below, meticulous attention is provided to
tracking, monitoring and recording each student’s
progress. Progress through the modularized
competency-based curriculum would be translated
into grade equivalencies as required.

2. Mastery of the competencies and skills in the
curriculum,
and
criterion-referenced
measurement and reporting. Assessment of student
achievement would be determined in terms of
mastery criteria established by the LM responsible
for each course. Student progress would be reported
in terms of competencies mastered, not scores
earned on norm-referenced tests. As indicated
above, grade equivalencies for comparative
progress reports would be available to receiving
institutions or agencies, as required.

3. Promotion of higher-order cognitive and
communication skills. Higher-order cognitive skills
associated with synthesizing information, problelm
solving and verbal written communication skills
would be stressed.
4. Frequent testing. Self tests, placement tests and
mastery tests would be accomplished either on-or
off-line through a computer-managed learning
(CML) system (see 5 below). As a result, feedback
reports would be available to students, LMs,
administrators and parents on a daily, weekly or
monthly basis as required.

5. Progress monitoring. Monitoring of each
student’s progress and scheduling would occur
through a CML system, i.e. a software application
designed to manage learning activities and
materials in an education environment.
15

Figure 2. CML In An Educational Environment

16

A mature CML system possess the following characteristics
(Computer Based Training Systems, undated):

• Collects and stores relevant data from the
learning environment
• Diagnoses student progress based on the mastery
of learning objectives
• Allows students private access to self-tests
• Prescribes remedial-learning opportunities to
students when needed
• Maintains secure instructor-prescribed tests
• Displays student and group progress on
demand
• Provides student with help on request
• Permits independent test banking when
necessary
• Analyzes test items when specified
• Provides electronic mail communication within
CML
• Provides access to computer phone facilities
• Utilizes computer editing systems

6 .One-on-one tutor support. A variety of
para-professionals, graduate students, tutor/aids
will provide intensive personal attention for
remediation/counselling or enrichment, depending
upon student performance as diagnosed by the LM.
Classroom-based instruction does not enable
one-on-one, intensive, long-term interaction
between an instructor/tutor and student.
7 .Rate of progress. Progress through the curriculum
would be largely student paced. Students would
proceed more nearly at a pace, and draw upon
learning resources, consistent with their optimum
learning styles. As a result, for many, considerable
free time would be available to explore areas of
interest in more depth and engage in part-time work,
etc.

17

8
.Access to computers and productivity software.
The use of microcomputers would be routine for
each student since computers would be scattered
throughout the school to support CML applications
and would be available to support work throughout
the curriculum.

9 .Community-school
partnership.
Through
cooperative ventures with school staff to design the
learning material and plan student community
projects, enhanced relationships between the school
and community should emerge.
What Happens to a Student on a Typical Day

1. Home room, announcements, attendance, etc.

2. Independent learning activities. Some students would move
immediately to learning stations to pursue their independent study,
beginning where they finished the last day. A typical sequence might
be as follows.
a) on-line diagnostic placement test;
b) print/media off-line self study material;
c) on-line self-test;
d) remediation with the tutor, if necessary, or back to the terminal for
an end-of-unit mastery test.
3. Typically, following a unit mastery-test, a student would be
scheduled on-line to a Learning Circle (small group seminar) with a
Circle Leader for in-depth discussion, verbal-communication skill
building, and information synthesizing. In addition to building
higher-order communication skills ideas for the in-depth community
partnership contracts would ensue from time-to-time.
Achievement scores on completed contracts would be added to the
student’s data-base for inclusion in final-achievement scores for that
unit.
Basic Requirements for Start-Up
The proposed school would require at least the followong elements.

18

1. Political. Since the curriculum is at the high
school level, one or more provincial departments of
education and school boards would have to be
players, and sanction the initiative.

2. Financial. Three sources of direct fiscal or
indirect in-kind support would be located provincial, federal and private sector. All three have
a stake in the outcome of the proposed initiative,
therefore all three should become stakeholders.
3. Technical. A myriad of technical issues need
attention. Some of the more salient are as follows.

a) Learning material The learning material currently
available from correspondence schools needs to be
recast into a competency-based, modularized
format, and realigned as described above. This
would take about one year, and would require
up-front development support. The process could
begin with existing Grades 10 and 11 courses in the
first year, and Grade 12 in the second year.
Following approximately one year of curriculum
development, the first group of students could be
enrolled at the Grade 10 level, with many
proceeding through Grade 11 material in their first
year. In the next year, a new group would enter at the
Grade 10 level, with the initial group proceeding to
Grade 11 and 12 level material, and so on. Revision
of the learning material and delivery systems would
occur as a result of the first year of debugging, (year
2 of the project), and be ready for re-implementing
in Year 3.

b) CML. Developing and implementing a mature,
tested, computer-managed support system (CML)
to enable each student to be tracked through the
learning system components would be critical to the
success of the initiative.

19

c) Staffing. A variety of staff would be required,
including
Learning
Managers
(LMs);
instructional-system designers; para-professional
tutors/aids; instructional technologists; and
instructional psychologists to work in teams with the
LMs, computer professionals and administrators all subscribing to the philosophy and values implicit
in the alternative school proposed.

d) Computer support. In addition to the essential
CML system, a variety of microcomputers and
associated productivity software (spread sheets,
work processing, information retrieval from data
bases, etc.) would need to be acquired to support
learning in all subject areas. Applications to the
language arts (word processing):, to information
retrieval and information processing (all subjects,
and, where appropriate, to on-line instruction,
particularly in mathematics, are all feasible.

CONCLUSION/SUMMARY

It is proposed to establish a non-graded continuous-progress alternate
school designed to promote mastery of the skills and competencies of
the technical/vocational high school curriculum. By applying the
principles and practices of mastery learning, it is proposed that most
students enrolled in the school will achieve mastery (80 - 90%) of the
technical/vocational curriculum.

A number of important advantages are expected to result from
implementation of the proposed alternative.

1. Success experiences will be realized by students
who may have been turned off by the traditional
school. The proposed alternative school is designed
to promote skills/competencies and success
experiences
in
a
non-threatening,
non
classroom-based, flexible environment. The model
stresses diagnostic assessment and appropriate
20

placement of each student in a modularized
curriculum. Students will be treated like adults and
have adult responsibilities, and will have adult
guides/tutors available at all times to assist them
when called upon (or when necessary as determined
by the CML tracking system). Further, it is expected
that considerable age-mixing will occur. For
example, the compositon of the Learning Circles
will vary from course to course, and within a course
over time. The compositon is not determined by the
age of the attendees, or their grade, but rather by
their progress through the learning packages.

2. Students will experience in-depth, structured
opportunities to develop higher-order cognitive
skills, (e.g. problem solving) and skill in both oral
and written communication.

3. The continuous-progress, flexible-intake and
output schedules for each student, when combined
with the requirements for in-depth projects
requiring community resources and contacts,
provides ample opportunities for the systematic
exploration of a variety of community partnerships
with business and industry and other community
agencies.
The proposal will be achieved by reorganzing the structure,
management and implementation of instruction in the school around
three principle learning sub-systems: a) guided independent study;
b)guided small group discussion/seminars; and c) individual in-depth
projects (community partnership).

Such a school could provide a new model of schooling, particularly for
adults who are preparing to enter the workforce, Or are re-tooling
themselves to be better equipped to function in a new labour market
for which they perceive they are ill equipped. Beyond the obvious
advantages to individual adults, the overall output from such schools
should significantly increase the quality and quantity of technical and
trades people for the labour market and arm them with the renewed
confidence to become life-long learners.
21

REFERENCES

Alberta Education."!?rends and Issues Affecting Practical Arts in
Alberta Technical Schools: A review of
Research.” Practical Arts Project, Curriculum
Design Branch, Edmonton, May, 1989.

Alberta Education. “A Status Report on the Practical Arts Programs
Within Secondary Schools in Alberta.”
Practical Arts Project, Curriculum design
Branch, Edmonton, June, 1989 (a).
Alberta Education. “Proposed Directions for Change: A Vision for
Practical Arts Progress in Secondary Schools
in Alberta.” Practical Arts Project,
Curriculum Design Branch, Edmonton, June
1989 (b).
Canadian Vocational Association. “Renewing Canada’s Skills Base.”
Brochure for the 25th Annual Canadian
Vocational Association Conference, June,
1989.
Computer Based Training Systems, Ltd, Calgary, Alberta.

Cuban, Harry. “The ‘At Risk’ Label and the Problem of Urban School
Reform.” Phi Delta Kappa, June 1989,
780-801.
de Grandpre, A. Jean. “Adjusting to Win.” Report of the Advisory
Council on Adjustment. Industry, Science and
Technology Canada, Ottawa, March, 1989.
Glendenning, Donald. “Issues in Secondary Vocational Education.”
Occasional Paper, Canadian Vocational
Association, Ottawa, 1989.
22

L’Association canadienne de la formation professionnelle est la seule association
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development •
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FRAIS D’lNSCRIPTION

ASSOCIATION COMMENT.

The Canadian Vocational Association wants to hear
your views on Training for Mastery in Secondary
Vocational Education. Please feel free to agree or
disagree. Send a letter to the author or the
Association, prepare an article for the Canadian
Vocational Journal, or develop your own alternative
technical/vocational high school model. Possible
further action by the Association will depend, at
least in part, on your reaction.