Resources

Technology
Published by the International Technology Education Association

Volume 10

Resources
in
Technology
Volume 10
Published by the International Technology Education Association

Table of Contents
1 BIOTECHNOLOGY
Changing the Work! We Live In

9 The Magic of Energy
17 Technology of Music
25 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Products from Super Sluff

33 Technology and the Handicapped
40 A CASHLESS SOCIETY?
The Plastic Revolution
47 Our Material World

An Elementary level Article
54 Sportsand Technology

TIDEWATER TECHNOLOGY
ASSOCIATES

Walter F. Deal, III, Editor
James Flowers
(guest author)
W. Fred Hadley
James A. Jacobs
Martha B. Jacobs
(guest author)
John M. Ritz
K. George Skena

Publisher's Note: Articles may be produced for classroom without permission
from the publisher c 1993

international technology Education

Association

This publication is printed on recycled paper.

RESOURCES IN TECHNOLOGY

BIOTECHNOLOGY

Changing the World
We Live In
K George Skena

Figure 1
Mature transgenic plants shown here have been regenerated from a tissue culture (Courtsey ofDeKalb

Plant Genetics).

iotechnology is not new. It is
the basis of one of the oldest
industries in the world, the
brewing of beer. The
domestication and breeding of animals and
the selective crossing of genes from plants
and bacteria are examples of biotechnology
on the farm and in the winery.
In general, mankind has not been
satisfied with the productivity and growth
of organisms in the wild state. So breeding
(and alteration of the genetic message
passed on to its offspring) is often used to
increase the output of desired product,
whether this be alcohol (wine, beer),
protein (beef, chicken), or carbohydrate,
(potato, lima beans).
Historically, breeding has been the
limiting factor in comparing biotechnology,
because primitive methods, such as some
that are described in the Old Testament, are
slow and proceed by trial and error.
Indeed, until the last fifteen years, they had
not been improved upon. Now scientists
have acquired the unprecedented ability to
manipulate genes, to isolate and copy them,
and even transfer them into frozen species.
These developments are the results of
research in recombinant DNA technology.
The developments that were to
culminate in recombinant DNA technology
had their origins in the early 1970’s.
Recombinant DNA is made by joining, or
“recombining” in molecular biology
jargon, DNA’s from different sources. The
ability to make recombinant DNA
molecules opened the way to isolating and
producing essentially unlimited quantities
of a desired gene. A chromatograph is used
to create a genetic map of cell structures.
Although the contributions of
recombinant DNA technology and gene
cloning are hard to overstate, the research
has not been without controversy. The
ability to combine DNA/s from diverse
organisms and to put these recombinant
molecules into new species raised concerns
that the experiments might inadvertently
create virulent new pathogens that might
escape from the laboratory. This concern
was particularly acute because e. coli, the
bacterium that was and still is used for
many experiments, is a normal inhabitant of
the human intestinal tract. Plant scientists
have produced genetically designed plants
as shown in Figure 2 to improve yields,
plant size, and fertility requirements.

B

Biotechnology—Designer Enzymes
Most of the chemical reactions that occur in
living cells would take place too slowly to

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1

Figure 2
An embryonic plant (callus) is shown growing on a nutrient media just before plant culturing has occurred. Such studies lead to disease resistant
plants that can lead to superior seed stock (Courtsey ofDeKalb Plant Genetics).

support life if it were not for the existence
of the biological catalysts known as
enzymes. These molecules accelerate
biologic reactions often by a large
magnitude. They are responsible for almost
all cellular activity. In addition they are used
in the food industry for making cheese,
beer, wine and sweetener and in the
pharmaceutical industry for synthesizing
amino acids and protein. Enzymes are very
fragile, they deactivate at temperatures
above room temperature. Or they may lose
their activity if exposed to air, a solvent, or
too acidic or basic conditions. Scientists
need to check for changes in “immobility”
of enzymes as shown in Figure 3.
Nevertheless, this handicap may be
overcome by enzyme “immobilization,” in
which genetically altered enzymes are
trapped in a gel that stabilizes and provides
a convenient media for enzyme transport.
In the United States, the production of
high-fructose corn syrup uses immobilized
enzyme technology. A large commercial
operation can convert 4 million pounds of
cornstarch to high fructose corn syrup in a
little more than two days. A quick reading
of the labels of many products containing
sugar reveal that they contain genetically
engineered high-fructose corn syrup.
In the dairy industry, enzymes arc
essential for the production of cheese. Milk
contains proteins called casein. By using the
enzyme rennin (traditionally obtained from
the lining of calves stomachs) the milk will
coagulate and form a solid curd that

2

separates easily from the liquid portion of
the milk. This curd is the starting material
for cheese. New enzymes to replace rennin
have been biotechnologically developed.
These enzymes are pure and more
consistent in their action on liquid milk.
The beverage industry uses enzymes to
chill-proof juices, wines and beer. When
juices or wine are cooled below room
temperature an insoluble polysaccharide
(pectin) will settle out and cloud the liquid.
This cloudy appearance or haze is
unacceptable to consumers who believe the
product should be clear and transparent or
sparkling. To prevent the haze from
forming, enzymes called pectinases are
added to the juice or wine. Biotechnologists
use powerful scanning microscopes to
examine cell structures of emzymes (Figure
4).
Another application for genetically
engineered enzymes is in the manufacture
of soft-centered candies. The confections
are made with solid sucrose centers that
contain the enzyme invertase. Essentially,
when the candy leaves the factory it is
unfinished. In three to four weeks at room
temperature the invertase transforms the
sucrose into a liquid mixture of fructose
and glucose. The center is soft and moist
and actually sweeter than sucrose. This
process also helps maintain the candy’s
freshness.
If an enzyme is not present in certain
foods it may surround the food. For
example, the plastic shrink wrap that covers

most cheeses and processed meats is lightly
coated with glucose and two enzymes,
glucose oxidase and peroxinose. The
coating slows the development of off tastes
and colors thus retarding spoilage. Enzymes
are also used for chemical synthesis.
Nutritional supplements for debilitated
hospital patients or weight conscious
consumers are created from amino acids
derived from a wide variety of protein-rich
substances. Often these sources of protein
are undigestible or unpalatable in their
original form. The enzymes breakdown
these proteins and allow for reformulation
into new, tasty, and palatable products.
Today about fifteen percent of the
detergents in the United States are enzyme
active. Enzymes are the best agents available
for removing proteinaceous stains such as
egg, blood, or grass from cloth and textiles.
These protease-containing enzymes have
been encapsulated in minute plastic spheres.
This method reduces possible human or pet
allergy to the product containing enzymes
and a more even distribution of the enzyme
in water. Emzymes that are surrounded by
plastic spheres are “freeze dried” using
liquid nitrogen (Figure 5).

Biomining
Microorganisms have been forming and
decomposing minerals in the earth’s crust
since geologically ancient time. According
to Drs. Margulis and Lovelock in their
“Gaian” theory, microbial mining was and
still is a very important reason why our
biosphere can sustain life.

■ Resources in Technology

Figure 3
Scientific research studies require thousands ofsamples of materialsfor comparison and evaluation. Here a
scientist checks the immobility of enzymesfor changes (Courtsey of DeKalb Plant Genetics).

As early as 1500 B.C. miners in the
Mediterranean area recovered copper that
was leached by bacteria from ore and settled
into mine drainage beds. The contributions
of bacteria to metal leaching were not
recognized until relatively recently.
Today, the principal ores recovered are
copper and uranium, although cobalt,
nickel, zinc, lead and gold have also been
separated. Leaching reactions generally
involve the conversion of insoluble metal
ores, which are often sulfides, to soluble
compounds of the metal which can bc
readily removed. The leaching can be
performed on mined ore, or “in situ” right
in earth without ever removing the ore.
Even the leavings of conventional mining
operation can be furthered leached to
release otherwise trapped metal thus
reducing the contamination at the disposal
site.
One of the bacterial cells most used in
bio-mining is Thiobacillus, ferrooxidans.
This organism is adapted for living in harsh
conditions. They can live at high
temperatures, high acidity, and obtain their
energy from oxidizing inorganic substances
like minerals. Investigators are now
attempting to develop new strains of T.

Resources in Technology ■

ferrooxidans which have lower energy
needs, better growth rates, increased
leaching efficiencies and improved metal
yields. Genetic fine-tuning has already been
done with e, coliy which is being used as a
model to develop techniques with T
ferrooxidan. Bacteria may be grown in
culture tubes as shown in Figure 6 to assist
in new processing techniques.
Enzymes control and carry out a number
of chemical reactions occurring within the
body. A therapeutic enzyme may be used
with enormous potential for saving lives in
treating with therapeutic plasmogen
activators (TPA) to promote the dissolution
of blood clots that form during heart
attacks. In the past TPA could only be
isolated with great difficulty from human
uterine tissue. It was in chronically short
supply and very expensive. Now it is being
produced by recombinant DNA
technology. This genetically engineered
enzyme is highly selective and it causes little
damage except to the blood clot.
For a number of years now diabetic
patients have benefitted from
biotechnology. A person suffering from
diabetes must take daily injections of
insulin. Historically the insulin source was

from cattle (bovine) and pigs (porcine).
Often adverse reactions occurred in the
patients. Human insulin is difficult to
obtain. Now, using enzymes encapsulated
in the laboratory can convert porcine and
bovine insulin to the human variant.
Many of the diagnostic tests carried out
by physicians depend on enzymes. Enzymes
are used routinely to measure the
concentrations of glucose, urea, amino
acids, ethanol, and lactic acid in biological
fluids and to identify proteins and amino
acids. A gas chromatograph as shown in
Figure 7 may be used in conjunction with
emzymes to identify important amino acids.
Home diagnostic procedures often use
biotechnogically developed enzymes. For
example, diabetics must monitor the
glucose content of urine as an indicator of
their need for insulin. The glucose analysis
is performed simply by dipping a special
enzyme strip into a urine sample. A color
change will occur which is read according
to a chart on the package. Pregnancy tests
allow couples to know very early if they are
to become parents. These are widely
available and feature genetically altered
enzymes to create a color change or
reaction with a pregnant woman’s urine.
In the pharmaceutical industry, besides
the clot-dissolving TPA enzyme, an entirely
new group of technologies is emerging to
deal with opportunities afforded by
biotechnology. Examples include the
immune-system regulator interleuken-2;
polysaccharrides such as hyaluronic acid,
which is used in eye surgery; and nucleic
acid segments that are used for analyzing
DNA by FBI crime labs.
Most of the chemical industry is based on
declining petroleum feedstocks. In the long
term, and especially in developing nations,
there will be economic and environmental
reasons to use biologically-derive starting
materials, including cellulose, starch, lignin
and plant proteins, instead of petroleum
products.

Gene Cloning—A New
Frontier in Health
Biotechnology has provided a set of
powerful techniques for the analysis of
proteins and for their production and
manipulation. Most proteins already exist in
nature. However, recombinant DNA has
allowed scientists to create new proteins for
specific needs. Gene cloning is a technology
for identifying, isolating, and copying a
gene for a particular protein with the goal
of making the gene available for analysis or
production.
By using this method, gene libraries have
been prepared. Of particular interest is

3

Figure 4
Scientists use sophisticated analytical tools to examine and observe the action of cells. Here a
biotechnician is examining cells using a scanning electron microscope (Courtsey of DeKalb
Plant Genetics).

Harvard University’s library of cloned
human genes that represents the total
genetic material of a single individual. A cell
fùsion process may be used to produce
monoclonal antibodies or clones of cells as
shown in Figure 7.
Perhaps the clearest case for the power
and value of biotechnology in health is the
current AIDS crisis. Both the number of
AIDS cases and the size of the population
infected by the Human Immunodeficiency
Virus (HIV) have been growing
geometrically. Vaccines are being developed
from genetically engineered
microorganisms in which appropriate HIV
viral strains have been inserted. This
method has already been used by Smith
Kline and French laboratories of
Philadelphia for a vaccine against the
Hepatitis B virus.
Another approach is to use a carrier virus,
such as vaccinia virus (used widely against
smallpox) to serve as a vehicle for
introducing antigens from another, more
dangerous virus that could elicit a
protective immune response.
Lastly, recombinant DNA techniques
may allow researchers to disable the AIDS
virus genetically by removing or altering its

4

Figure 5
Plant embryos and plant tissue may be preserved by using
liquid nitrogen. The extremely low temperature of the
nitrogen “quick freezes” a batch ofenzymes shown in this
photograph (Courtsey ofDeKalb Plant Genetics).

genes so that it can infect an individual and
generate protective immunity against the
virulent form of the virus without causing
the disease itself. Success against the AIDS
virus, when it comes, will be none too
soon.

Biotechnology and the Environment
In the past several decades the use of
synthetic organic chemicals used as
broad-spectrum insecticides has saved
millions of lives that might have been lost
due to insect-borne diseases. Chemicals
have also contributed to substantial
increases in farm yields. However, the toxic
residues of these synthetic insecticides and
fertilizers have become environmental
contaminants. Moreover, the continued
application of some of the insecticides has
fostered the emergence of resistant pest
variants that are no longer killed by the
chemicals. A plant’s genes can be altered by
bacteria to make the plant resistant to
herbicides (Figure 8).
Among the number of viruses capable of
infecting and causing the death of specific
insect pests are viruses of the Baculoviridae
group, which are effective for controlling

such pests as the cotton bollworm, the
gypsy moth, and the Douglas fir moth.
Techniques for injecting genes into the
common mosquito have allowed scientists
to alter this species which had become
tolerant of insecticides so that it can be
controlled by less toxic pesticides.
Large-scale disease control through
engineered insects remains far down the
road, however, new drugs and safer
pesticides will no doubt play an important
role along the way.

“Bio-tick-nology”
Lyme disease which can bring serious
nerve, joint and heart problems is a
tick-borne disease that is skyrocketing in
incidence in both the U.S. and Europe.
The tick lives on the common deer and is
readily transmitted to humans.
An experimental vaccine made using
recombinant DNA methods has been
shown to completely protect mice against
Lyme disease. By developing a strain of
mice, Yale University School of Medicine
researchers have been able to produce many
of the arthritis and cardiac symptoms seen
in humans with Lyme disease. Now the
vaccine can be tested on these mice instead

■ Resources in Technology

Figure 6
A biotechnician manually adds bacteria to culture
tubesfor incubation. This process can be automated
using robotsfor large batch processing (Courtsey of
DeKalb Plant Genetics).

Figure 7
A fusion method may be used to produce
monoclonal antibodies. Cells or protoplasm are
selected andgrown byfusing cells together to
produce specific antibodies (Adapted from
Biotechnology Comes ofAge, Steve Olson, 1986).

of humans. These transgenic mice (Figure
9) are similar in type to those developed by
Yale University Medical School as they all
have the same receptor.

Please Pass the Genes!
While plants make their own food by
photosynthesis they all need large amounts
of nitrogen in a form they can absorb
through their roots. Atmospheric nitrogen
is “fixed” or trapped in a liquid or solid
form by lightning and more often by special
“nitrogen fixation” bacteria. Certain
agricultural plants have these bacteria in
nodules in their roots. These are called
legumes. Instead of taking nutrients out of
die soil as they grow these plants actually
enrich the soil. Plants such as alfalfa and
soybeans are good examples.

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It has long been the goal of agronomists
to activate these nitrogen fixing bacteria in a
wide variety of agriculture plants. In effect,
self-fertilization of the soil would occur.
Additionally the millions of tons of
commercially produced nitrogen based
fertilizers are expensive to manufacture and
apply. Agricultural biotechnologists have
researched the Rhizobium bacterium. This
bacterium can be genetically manipulated to
produce nitrogen nodules on the roots of
non-leguminous plants. Presently, the
prospect of creating new plants with
nitrogen fixation ability is low. However,
after the plant is growing a light application
of Rhizobium to the soil provides enough
bacteria to collect nitrogen from the air and
traps it in the soil. Instead of “Please pass

the peas,” we may well say “Please pass the
genes.” As the cartoon shows in Figure 10,
we may be eating genetically engineered
“fast food” sooner than we may think!

Plant Cell and Tissue Culture
Plant cell and tissue culture is fundamental
to most aspects of plant biotechnology.
Plant tissue culture was initially introduced
to facilitate the clonal propagation of
horticultural species that did not undergo
sexual reproduction. Home gardeners
know this well; African violets and
philodendron plants grown from cuttings
are easy to propagate. None of the original
plant’s special characteristics are lost in the
“off spring.” Some plant species are
amenable to another biotechnique called

5

express the genetic make-up of the code the
virus carried.

Monoclonal Antibodies
Antibodies can easily recognize immune cell
antigens. They are excellent tools for
detecting leukemia, lymphomas and cancers
that are often difficult to diagnose early. A
monoclonal antibody has even been
developed that distinguishes between two
closely related Herpes viruses. One is
harmful, the other is not.
In cancer patients, the monoclonal
antibodies not only are used to detect the
presence of cancer using the
carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) test, but
these antibodies also are used to destroy the
cancer cells. This monoclonal antibody
therapy often works when conventional
therapies such as chemotherapy, radiation
and surgery fail.

Careers in Biotechnology
Scientists of all types and possessing a
variety of skills are needed to share the work
load of the exciting, expanding field of
biotechnology. People who will work as
biochemists, ecologists, horticulturists,
pathologists, and geneticists will find
rewarding and stimulating careers in
biotechnology (Figure 11).

Summary

Figure 8
Gene transfer into plants by A.Tumefaciens. This diagram shows how plants can be made resistant to a
herbicide (Rounduptm). Adapted from A. Revolution in Biotechnology—Jean Marx, 1988.

“synthetic seeds.” Synthetic seeds are
produced by encapsulating plant embryos
in a protective covering that allows them to
be handled more or less like conventional
seeds.
Another method of plant propagation
uses the protoplasm (the gel-like material
inside a cell) of one plant type and fuses it
with another hybrid using polyethylene
glycol or electric current. The result is often
plants with enhanced disease resistance, salt
tolerance or high yields. Domestic hybrid
corn and rice production has benefitted
from this technique.
While plant cell and tissue culture
technologies are useful and bring new
varieties and improved crop plants to the
market place, the real excitement in
agriculture is plant transformation with

6

foreign recombinant DNA. In the
procedure foreign DNA is introduced into
cultured plant cells to bring about genetic
transformation. Using bacteria of the genus
Agrobacterium, agronomists have
introduced frost-proof plants, plants which
use very little water and plants that are wilt
resistant. Research using this technology
has shown that plant alkaloids and other
plant drugs can be increased using DNA
manipulation.
Since viruses lack a cell wall and are very
small they easily penetrate the DNA of a
host cell. Using this fact, scientists have
developed viral “vectors” to transfer new
codes to the host plant. One such virus is
the cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV). As it
infects a host plant this virus does not harm
it, but subsequent generations of the plant

The fascinating world of biotechnology is
just opening up to the scientists’ view.
Many of the wonders of modern
agriculture, medicine, processing and
manufacturing depends on dais new form of
technology. The discovery of recombinant
DNA techniques paved the way for a
number of new discoveries in
biotechnology. Today’s biotechnologist has
the challenge to bring these ideas to
fruition. Gene cloning is rapidly replacing
traditional diagnostic and therapeutic
techniques in medicine and health science.
The ultimate cure for AIDS may lie in the
new discoveries biotechnologists have made
recently with gene cloning. Biotechnology
affects each of us daily: in the home, at the
dinner table, in the restaurant, or at the
supermarket.

Possible Student Outcomes
1. The student should be able to define
biotechnology.
2. Students should know the many ways in
which biotechnology improves the quality
of life.
3. Students will become aware of the
various career opportunities that are
available in biotechnology.

■ Resources in Technology

Figure 9
Transgenic mice are useful in
studying the fates of T cells. If
the genesfor one T cell receptor
are inserted into a SCID
mouse egg, all of the T cells in
the resulting mouse will have
the same receptor and meet the
same end.

Student Quiz
1. Define biotechnology and briefly
describe its importance.
2. Explain the difference between
traditional genetics and modern
biotechnology.
3. Briefly list some of the new plants and
animals produced as a result of
biotechnology.
4. Why are enzymes so important in
chemical and biologic reactions?
5. What is biomining and leaching? What
are their limitations?
6. What are some of the biotechnologies
used in modern medicine?
7. How does biotechnology affect the
prices we pay for food at the supermarket?
8. What are the advantages of using
bio-engineered methods for fertilizing plant
crops?
9. How is the battle against AIDS being
helped by biotechnology?

Glossary of Important
Biotechnology Terms
Bioleaching

Biomining

Enzymes

Gene cloning

Genetic
engineering

Microencapsulation

Recombinant

The use of solutions
containing bacteria to
dissolve and recover
valuable metals from ores.
Using bacteria to recover
metals from ores or toxic
waste.
Proteins that act as
biological catalysts,
speeding up die rates of
chemical reactions in living
organisms.
The use of recombinant
DNA technology to isolate
and produce large
quantities of a particular
gene.
The application of
recombinant DNA
methods to confer new
traits on organisms by
introducing new genes
into their cells.
The enclosure of enzymes
in tiny porous spherical
membranes to decrease
their fragility and increase
their effectiveness.
DNAA DNA molecule
formed by joining DNA
segments from two or
more segments.

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References
Antebi, Elizabeth and Fishlock, David
(1986) Biotechnology: Strategiesfor Life,
The MIT Press.
Elkington, John, (1985) The Gene Factory,
Carroll and Graf.
Kenney, Martin, (1986) Biotechnology—The
University Industrial Complex, Yale
University Press.
Marx, Jean L., (1989) A Revolution in
Biotechnology, Cambridge University Press.
Olesky, Walter ( 1986) Miracles of Genetics,
Childrens Press.
Olson, Steve (1986) Biotechnology—An
Industry Comes ofAge, National
Academy Press.
Acott, Andrew, (1986) The Creation of Life,
Past, Future, Alien, Basil Blackwell, LTD.

Design Brief
Context
Biotechnology is closely linked with
traditional genetics. Understanding how
traits that are in one’s own family can give
us clues to traits we have already and those
waiting to be expressed.

Objectives

Here is a list of the most common
dominant and recessive traits passed on by
gene. Read the lists and then:

• Nervous System

1. Circle the traits you have.
2. Put a star by traits your mother has.
3. Put a box by traits your father has.
4. Notice the number of recessive and
dominant traits you circled, starred,
and boxed.

dark hair
non-red hair
curly hair

Demonstrate how traits from one’s parents
may be dominant or recessive. Help the
student predict genetic tendencies in
themselves and others.

What can you say about dominant and
recessive traits, based on your results?

Challenge

Dominant Genes
• Hair

Working in groups of two or more students
each student will read the design brief and
check the various dominant and recessive
genes in their family. As a group they will
decide what traits may be expressed now in
the body and health and what traits will be
expressed later as they age.

Dominant and Recessive Genes
A dominant gene overpowers other genes
by showing its trait. The recessive genes are
not expressed when in the presence of the
corresponding dominant gene. If an
offspring inherits a dominant and a
recessive gene for a particular trait, then the
dominant gene will take precedence in the
offspring. If an offspring inherits two
recessive genes for a particular trait, then
the recessive gene will be expressed in the
offspring.

8

early baldness in males
• Pigmentation

normal pigmentation
• Eyes

brown
hazel or green
nearsightedness
farsightedness
astigmatism
normal color perception
• Features

broad lips
large eyes
long eyelashes
broad nostrils
• Skeleton and Muscles

short stature (many genes)
• Circulatory System

blood groups A, B, and AB
normal

normal
• Hair

Recessive Genes
• Hair

normal retention of hair
albinism (no pigment)
• Eyes

blue or gray
normal vision
color blindness
• Features

thin lips
small eyes
short eyelashes
narrow nostrils
• Skeleton and Muscles

tall stature
• Circulatory System

blood group 0
hemophilia (sex-linked)
sickle-cell disease
• Nervous System

congenital deafness
• I lair

blond hair
red hair
straight hair
Adapted from the National
Organization for Rare Diseases.

■ Resources in Technology

RESOURCES IN TECHNOLOGY

The Magic
of Energy
Walter F. Deal, III

Figure 1. Satellites can he used to collected data to explore for natural petroleum reserves and monitor the
environment. This picture image isfrom the LANDSAT satellite and shows surface features in south
central Bolivia. (Courtesy of Texaco Exploration & Production Technology Department)

hat would life bc like without
such tilings as lighting,
heating, and the electrical
gadgets that we all enjoy?
These are all available because we have a
wide variety of energy resources. Energy
provides us with the power necessary to
operate transportation systems and
factories, to produce the goods and services
that provide us with one of the highest
standards of living in the world. Energy also
provides us with the capabilities for
entertainment services such as radio,
television, and video players. And, all living
creatures use energy as part of their living
processes. Energy is certainly a magic
resource that sustains life and extends the
human capabilities.
Most all energy sources must be
converted or processed before they arc
useable in the areas of production,
transportation, and communication
technologies. Figure 3 illustrates a
generalized flow chart of energy resources,
their processing or converters, and the
outputs. In each energy application there
are positive benefits and negative impacts.
The producers and users of energy strive to
minimize the negative impacts in the
conversion of various energy resources.

W

Contemporary Analysis
Fossil Fuels
Coal, petroleum, and natural gas arc
considered to be fossil energy resources.
These resources provide about 85% of the
energy used in the United States. They are
non-renewable energy resources because of
the extremely long periods of time and
unique conditions in nature required to
produce them. However, fossil energy
resources are used to produce more than
energy and power for our communication,
production, and transportation systems.
Fossil energy resources are rich in carbon
and hydrogen and are the basic building
blocks for producing a wide range of
plastics, fabrics, paints, solvents, building
materials, and medicines.

Coal
Coal is formed from the remains of
vegetation that grew many millions of years
ago. It is one of our earliest sources of heat
and light. Historical records and artifacts
indicate that the Chinese were known to
have mined coal as a source of energy over
3,000 years ago. Early discoveries of coal in
the United States were made by French
explorers on the Illinois River in 1679. The

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9

first commercial mining of coal was near
Richmond, Virginia in 1750. Coal grew in
importance as the United States moved into
the age of industrialization. Coal served as
the major source of energy and heat to
manufacture iron and steel, to process other
materials, and power locomotives to pull
trains. Coal was our most important energy
resource from 1850 to 1950, as it was in
abundant supply and reasonably priced.
Coal is one of the most plentiful energy
resources that the United States has.
Energy experts believe that more than 80%
of this nation’s recoverable fossil energy
resources are in the form of coal. It is
estimated that the United States has
approximately 250-300 years of coal
reserves at the current rate of consumption.
Another measure of the recoverable base
reserve of coal is 267 billion tons or 29
percent of the world’s coal!
Coal is mined commercially in
twenty-seven states and can be found in
others. However, 90% of the coal is
concentrated in ten states including
Montana, Illinois, Wyoming, West Virginia,
Kentucky, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Colorado,
Texas, and Indiana. Montana has the largest
share of the coal reserves with 120 billion
tons, which represents a quarter of the U.S.
coal reserves. It is estimated that the U.S.
coal reserves contain 12 times as much
energy as all of the oil in Saudi Arabia. This
is a major factor in considering coal as a
major energy resource.
The term coal is used to describe a wide
variety of fossilized plant materials, but no
two coals are exactly alike. Each type of coal
has different heating values, ash melting
temperature, sulfur content, other
impurities, a variety of chemical and
physical properties and must be considered
when selecting coals for a particular energy
or processing application. Coal is classified
into four general types. These include
lignite, subbituminous, bituminous, and
anthracite and are reflective of the
progressive changes of the earth’s heat and
pressure used in producing them. The
carbon content of coal supplies most of the
heating value, but other factors affect the
amount of energy per unit of weight. The
amount of energy in coal is expressed in
BTU or British Thermal Units which is the
amount of heat required to raise one pound
of water one degree Fahrenheit.
Coal that is found close to the surface of
the earth can be uncovered and removed
using large machines, by a process called
surface mining. Surface mining accounts for
60 percent of the coal produced in the
United States. Seventy-five percent of the
coal recovered by this technique is mined in

10

Basic Types of Underground Mines

A shaft mine lies deep under
ground. Shafts are dug straight
down to provide access for miners,
coal seam, and fresh air exchange.

A slope mining technique is used
where the coal is nearer to the
surface and easier to obtain.

Drift mining techniques are used
when a coal seam is exposed at
the edge of a mountain side.

Figure 2. Coal is mined in a variety of ways. The particular method that is selected is determined where the
coal resources are located. (Adapted from Coal: Ancient Gift Serving Modern Man)

the Western states where some deposits are
as much as 100 feet thick.
Today’s surface mines are large intensively
engineered and highly efficient operations.
There are many government regulations that
govern the operation of coal mines, its
workers, and the environment. Before a new
mine is opened, careful engineering and
geological studies are made to determine the
amount and quality of the coal and the
surrounding environment. When an area is to
be mined, the top soil and subsoil are
removed and set aside to be used in
reclaiming the land after the coal has been
removed. Then large, specially designed
machines called draglines, wheel excavators,
or large shovels are used to remove the rock
and other material called overburden. This
exposes the bed of coal. The coal is then
removed and loaded into large trucks to be
transported to coal terminals for grading and
shipment by trains with coal cars, barges or
special ships called colliers.
After the coal is removed from a surface
mine, the final stages of the surface mining
process begins. The overburden, subsoils,
and topsoils are returned to the mining area
in reclaiming the site. The land contours
and elevations are restored as nearly
possible to the original contours. The area
is then planted with vegetation and restored
to a natural and productive state. The
reclaimed lands can then support natural
wild life, farming operations, recreation
centers, or commercial development.
There are other types of mining
techniques are used to mine coal when it is
not practical to use surface mining

practices. These are called underground
mining techniques and include shaft
mining, slope mining, and drift mining.
Each of these techniques are used according
the location of the coal seams and
surrounding geology. Figure 2 shows how
coal is mined using shaft, slope, and drift
mining. Deep coal mines may be described as
large “underground cities” with a complex
maze of passages that are carefully engineered
to gain access to the deposits of coal.

Petroleum
Petroleum is often called “black gold”
because of its value as an energy resource,
raw material and feed stock for the plastics
and synthetic polymer industries. Petroleum
supplies about 40 percent of the total
energy needs of our society. Additionally, it
supplies more than half of the world’s total
supply of energy. The word petroleum is
derived from the Latin words “petra” and
“oleum” and literally means “rock oil.”
Petroleum is a combination of complex
hydrocarbons that occur in the sedimentary
rock formations of the Earth’s crust in the
form of gases, liquids, semi-solids, or solids.
Generally, mixtures of gases and liquids are
most commonly found. The standard unit
of measure for oil is the “barrel” which
represents 42 gallons.
Exploration for oil and gas is conducted
on a world-wide basis. Petroleum is found
on nearly every continent on the earth
including such far away places as Europe,
the Middle East, Asia, and Australia.
Explorations are planned and implemented
on land and the continental shelves in
search of possible drilling sites. Seismic

■ Resources in Technology

factions and have lower boiling points
whereas fuel and lubricating oils are heavier
and have higher boiling points and thus do
not rise as high as they are drawn off. A
single tower may produce a variety of fuels,
solvents, oils, and asphalt. Other refining
processes are also used.
The value of petroleum becomes
apparent when one considers the variety of
products that can be produced from oil and
its by-products. Motor fuel, heating oils,
and lubricating oils are well-known
products of petroleum. However,
automobile and truck tires, varnish and
naphtha, turpentine, soaps and greases,
insecticides, rust preventatives, building
materials, waxes, and plastics feed stocks are
produced from oil. There is little wonder
that oil is called “black gold” because of its
flexibility as a fuel, a building block for
other materials, and the relative ease of
transport and storage.
Figure 3. Nearly allforms of energy must be convertedfrom one form to another to power our systems in
communication, production, and transportation. Thisfollows the Input-Process-Output model ofsystems
analysis.

surveys are part of the exploratory process
in locating potential oil reserves. A
seismograph is a special geological map of a
particular location produced by reflected
sound waves to an underlying rock strata.
In particular, petroleum geologists and
engineers look for pockets where petroleum
may have accumulated. Under very special
conditions it is possible that these surveys
can show the presence of natural gas. If a
seismic survey indicates favorable conditions
for a petroleum find, then a test boring is
made to obtain core samples for analysis.
New technologies such as satellite remote
sensing and mapping and computer
modelling and analysis arc tools that assist
in evaluating the earth’s resources. Figure 1
shows a picture image from LANDSAT
used in energy resource exploration.
Petroleum exploration companies use some
of the world’s most powerful super
computers to study three-dimensional
models of the earth’s surface to reduce the
risks in exploring for oil, and increase the
likelihood of a find. Petroleum companies
use much of their resources in production
and exploration research. Their research has
led to more efficient methods in discovering
and recovering petroleum resources.
Additionally, refined products research has
led to a great variety of petroleum-based
products and improved quality.
Large ships called super tankers and
pipelines carry the majority of crude oil to
refineries. The process of extracting,

Resources in Technology ■

transporting and refining oil is called
production. To gain access to the oil, a well
is drilled with special drilling rigs that are
capable of drilling through a wide range of
soil and rock structures. Wells may be
drilled as deep as 17,000 feet into the
earth’s surface to locate and recover oil
reserves. A drilling rig uses a rotary table to
turn a drill string (pipe) and drilling bit to
cut into the earth. Water is forced through
the drill pipe and bit to wash away the
borings and a casing is place in the well as it
is drilled to prevent the sides of the well
from collapsing. A special valve, called a
“blowout valve,” is placed at the top of the
well, to prevent the oil from spilling. Oil
rises to the surface under natural pressure.
Oil rigs that are used in the oceans are
called “offshore” rigs. These types of rigs
may be platforms, barges, or
semi-submersible rigs to drill and gain
access to oil deposits.
Once an oil reserve is found, the crude
oil must bc extracted from the earth and
transported to a refinery. The crude must
be processed before it is usable as a fuel or
industrial material. A special distillation
tower is used to separate the different
components from the crude oil. As the oil is
heated in the distillation process, the lighter
factions rise to the top of the column and
condense where. The heavier factions have
higher boiling points and rise a relatively
small amount and are drawn off. For
example, gasoline and kerosene are light

Natural Gas
Natural gas is an energy resource that is
second only to oil. Like oil, natural gas is a
hydrocarbon that is in a gaseous state. Like
oil and coal, natural gas was formed
millions of years ago as the result of
decaying plant and organic matter. Natural
gas is extracted much the same as
petroleum. Geological studies of rock
formations and core samples are examined
to determine the presence of gas.
Frequently, natural gas is found above
formations of oil in the ground. Large
quantities of natural gas may also be present
where coal is found. Before it was practical
to transport natural gas over large distances
it was “burned-off” as a by-product of coal
mining and oil production processes. It was
considered a waste product.
When natural gas is extracted from the
earth it generally consists of four primary
gases. These gases include methane—85
percent, ethane—3 to 8 percent, propane
0.7 to 2 percent, and butane 0.2 to 0.7
percent. There are also other gases that may
be present in natural gas, including carbon
dioxide, nitrogen, and helium. Each of the
gases found in natural gas arc of
commercial importance. Propane and
butane are used in “bottled” gases for
home heating and cooking and are used in
industrial applications for gas torches and
certain kinds of welding processes. Ethane
is used in the manufacture of plastics and
alcohols for industrial applications.
Each of the hydrocarbons found in
natural gas have different heating or energy
values. Methane, which is generally the
largest component of natural gas, has the
lowest energy content of the methane series

11

of gases. Natural gas is measured by the
cubic foot or therm where a therm is equal
to 100 cubic feet of gas. Each of the major
gases produce differing amounts of heat
energy. A one cubic foot of a high methane
content natural gas may produce about
1,000 BTUs of heat energy. Whereas one
cubic foot of gas that contains high
concentrations of propane, ethane, and
butane may yield over 1,500 BTUs.
The most efficient method of
transporting natural gas is by pipeline.
Pipelines, like railroad tracks, criss-cross the
United States from the large gas producing
regions in the Central part of the country
to the cities along the east and west coasts.
Figure 4 shows pipeline workers install a
new pipe line system. There are
approximately 2 million miles of pipelines in
the U.S. alone. The world’s largest pipeline
system is the Siberian-Western Europe
pipeline that was completed in 1983. This
pipeline connects Russia, the world’s largest
natural gas producer, to Europe. Other
means of transporting natural gas are special
tank ships and trucks called LNG carriers
(Liquified Natural Gas). However, LNG
must be kept under very high pressures at
low temperatures during its transport to
keep it in a liquid state. The advantage of
this transportation process is that the
liquified natural gas requires far less space
than in its gaseous state.
Natural gas offers several advantages over
other petroleum fuels in that it is easy to
transport, a clean-burning fuel, and

produces fewer emissions. Geological
studies indicate that there may be more
natural gas reserves than formerly believed.
With the new national pollution standards
that are coming into effect during the
1990’s, natural gas may become the fuel of
choice for reduced emissions for
automobiles, trucks, and buses. As an
engine fuel, natural gas emits less carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide than gasoline
and produces no soot or particulates.

Alternative Energies
Solar Energy
Solar energy has been used by humans for
thousands of year’s as a source of energy for
warmth and food preservation. Early
civilizations oriented cliff dwellings and
structures to take advantage of natural solar
radiation of the sun and as a means of drying
vegetables, grains, fish and meats for storage
and later use. The sun is the source of all of
the earth’s energy and is responsible for the
creation of fossilized energy resources such as
coal and oil. Solar energy is considered a
renewable energy resource because it is a
continuing natural resource.
While solar energy has long been used by
humans knowingly or unknowingly, today
it is thought of as an energy of the future.
In the past, the heavy reliance on fossil fuels
by nations from around the world created
market demands that have out-stripped
supplies and caused extreme price
fluctuations. The price fluctuations of

traditional energies caused people to explore
other sources of energy. Thus, twenty years
ago during the oil embargoes of 1972-73
and again in 1978, engineers and researchers
began significant efforts to develop new
energy resources such as solar energy.
There are many types of solar energy
collection systems in use today. Some are
the “flat panel” designs that produce
relatively low temperature thermal energy,
while others are high temperature
concentrating collectors that can be used to
produce steam and use the refrigeration
cycle for heating and cooling purposes.
Collection systems that concentrate thermal
energy produce high temperatures that are
needed for electrical power generation.
Solar energy uses are generally classified
as active or passive systems. Active solar
energy systems use some form of
conversion and processing technologies to
collect, store, and transport the energy to a
point of use. Passive solar systems generally
do not use pumps and electronic controls
to enable the use of the energy.
Active and passive solar energies offer us
many advantages. The sun’s thermal energy
is free and the costs involved are directed to
its conversion and storage. The sun’s
energy is considered renewable in that it is
continuing, and it is non-polluting to the
environment. There are disadvantages
however, the cost of recovering or converting
solar energy into a useful form is initially
expensive. It is not always available because of
natural weather conditions and it is difficult to

Figure 4. Pipelines are one of
the largest carriers ofpetroleum
products. Here construction
workers are fabricating a
pipeline for naturalgas.
(Courtesy ofTRA NSCO)

Figure 5. Solar One, located near Barstow, California, is high-temperature solar thermal power system
where concentrating collectors are used to collect large quantities ofsolar energyfor conversion into electricityfor
utility companies, (Courtesy ofDepartment of Water & Power Resources: City ofLos Angeles)

store. Solar energy is diffuse and must be
concentrated to use for many of our
residential and commercial energy needs.
Active solar energy systems use special
devices and technologies to collect and
convert the sun’s energy into a useful form.
Solar energy can be collected from the solar
panels that absorb the sun’s radiation and
convert it into thermal energy. The
collected energy can be transported
through a fluid medium such as gas (air or a
refrigerant) or a fluid to a desired location
for use. Heat exchangers are used to change
the thermal energy from one material to
another, for convenience of use and
intended application. An example of an
active solar energy system is a solar hot
water heating system. Typically, these
systems are used for heating hot water for
washing dishes, bathing, cooking, or
general space heating.
The simplest passive solar heating
principle is that of direct gain. Solar energy
main bc “gained” by leaving the south side
of a home or structure unshaded during the
winter. This allows sunlight in the house,
where the heat energy can bc absorbed and
stored into the floors and walls. Additional
storage capabilities may be added by using
building materials or tanks of water that store
the heat energy in the material during periods
of peak solar insulation. The heat energy can
be released during periods of lower
temperatures or at night. Other techniques
include the addition of “solar rooms” that
make extensive use of large glassed-in areas
that collect the sun’s energy.

Resources in Technology ■

Other applications include
high-temperature solar thermal power
systems where concentrating collectors are
used to collect large quantities of solar
energy. The solar energy is converted to
steam energy at very high temperatures that
are capable of driving turbines that drive
generators for producing electricity. An
example of this technology is the Solar One
facility located in Barstow, California. Solar
One, figure 5, uses a 200 foot tower that is
surrounded by a circular array of 1,818
mirrors that arc called heliostats. Heliostats
arc large sun-tracking mirrors that measure
about 22 feet on a side.
Many people thought that solar energy was
too diffuse to be used as a large-scale power
source for electrical energy. The Solar One
project is a 10 megawatt system that helped
prove the feasibility of converting solar
thermal energy into electricity.
Solar energy may also be used to
generate electricity through the application
of solid-state physics. Semiconductor cells
called photovoltaic cells (PV) produce
electric currents when struck by light.
Individual photovoltaic cells produce small
amounts of electricity—usually fractions of
a volt. However, when combined together
to form large arrays they can produce
sufficient power to supply the electrical
needs for many residential, commercial, and
industrial applications.
A variety of semiconductor materials arc
used for making photovoltaic cells.
Materials such as single and polycrystalline
silicon, thin-film silicon, and other

advanced technology materials are used in
the manufacture of photovoltaic cells.
Initially, the efficiency of PV cells was very
low, however newer cells have conversion
efficiencies of more than 30 percent. As
research in photovoltaic materials
continues, new materials and
manufacturing methods will produce more
reliable and efficient cells.
In general there arc two types of
photovoltaic systems, in use today. These arc
called stand-alone and utility-connected.
Stand alone systems are self-contained and
provide power without any connection to
other power sources. They may be used in
remote locations where it is impractical or
impossible to deliver power using traditional
technologies such as buoy markers in oceans
and rivers, microwave repeaters, satellite
ground stations, and satellites. Other uses of
PV energy sources include power for
pumping water, refrigeration of food in
remote locations, and to power consumer
products such as calculators and radios.
Usually, PV cells are connected to
rechargeable batteries in stand-alone systems
to provide a constant source of power and
when sun light is not available.
Utility connected photovoltaic devices,
figure 6, are connected to electric utility
systems where power is added to the
utility’s system when the PV system is
producing more power than is needed by
the user. Typically, a PV panels are used to
provide electricity for heat, light, and
appliances, or to charge batteries to provide
electricity at night. However, the PV system
is also connected to a local electric utility. If
the PV system produces more electricity
than needed, then the extra electricity is
sold to a utility company. When the PV
system is not producing enough electricity
for the user, the power is purchased from
the utility company.

Wind
Wind is a form of solar energy and is the
result of the uneven heating of the earth’s
surface by the sun. The earth, with its deserts,
mountains, forests, and oceans absorbs the
sun’s radiant energy at different rates. During
the day, the air over land surfaces warms more
quickly than the air above the oceans. The
warm air over the land areas expands and rises
more quickly than the air over large bodies of
water. The cool air over oceans rushes in to
take the place of the warm rising air and
causes local winds. At night, the cycle reverses
and the winds move toward the oceans
because the land masses cool more quickly
than the water. Large atmospheric winds that
circle the earth are created in similar fashion.
The land around the equator is heated more

13

Figure 6. Photovoltaic arrays can provide electrical
powerfor remote locations and contribute to
electricity to utility power systems. Utility
regulations allow independent producers to sell
excess power to utility companies providing an
incentive for people to install and use PV systems.
(Courtesy of Siemens)

complex and expensive. A wind farm must
be located on large tracts of land. Local
zoning codes, wind speed and direction,
local weather conditions, and access to
electrical power transmission lines are
important factors that are considered before
constructing a wind farm.
Wind turbines are very large machines as
can be seen in figure 7. A 100 kilowatt
wind turbine may bc 80 feet tall and have a
rotor that measures 60 feet in diameter! A
single turbine may require as much as two
acres of land. When you consider that a
wind farm may have a hundred turbines,
the land requirements become several
hundred acres or more.
Wind farms that are planned and
constructed for utility power generation
require an average wind speed of 14 miles
per hour. There are a number of states that
could support utility scale wind farms
because of their average wind speeds. Some
of these states include California, North
Dakota, Texas, Kansas, Oklahoma,
Colorado, and New Mexico. California has
been a leader in developing wind energy.
Good sites for wind farms are the smooth

rounded tops of rolling hill country, plains
or shore lines, and mountain gaps that
produce wind funneling.
How much energy can we get from the
wind? Electric power produced by wind
energy rose from 10,000 kWh in 1981, an
amount sufficient for two homes, to 2.125
billion kWh in 1989, enough to serve the
residential needs of a city of over 900,000
people. That would serve more than the
population of a city the size of San
Francisco or Washington, DC. A report by
the Department of Energy indicates that
0.6 percent of the contiguous United States
contains sufficient wind resources to
produce 20 percent of the U.S. electricity
demand, using today’s technology.
However, when evaluating energy sources,
efficiency and capacity are two measures
that describe how much energy can be
extracted from that source. Efficiency refers
to how much useful energy we can convert
from an energy source. Wind plants convert
30 to 40 percent of the wind’s kinetic
energy into electricity. As a comparison, a
coal-fired power plant converts about 35
percent of the heat energy in coal into

Figure 7. Advanced wind turbine technology makes it possible to capture large quantities ofkinetic energy
of the wind and convert it to electricity. Recent studies show that wind farms could supply as much as 20
percent of the nations electricity. (Courtesy of U.S. Windpower)

by the sun than the land near the North and
South Poles.
Today people use wind energy to
produce electricity and pump water from
the earth. Large wind turbines are very
different from the old wind mills of the
past. Old wind mills were used to convert
the kinetic energy of the wind into
mechanical energy for grinding grain or
pumping water. The majority of the
modern wind turbines arc used to generate
electricity. Wind turbines use large rotors
that have pitched blades to collect the
wind’s kinetic energy. The wind pushes
against the blades of the rotor and causes
diem to turn and produce a rotary
mechanical motion. This motion transferred
through drive shafts and other mechanical
linkages to turn a generator that produces
electricity. Electricity, unlike fossil energies, is
difficult to store. Research continues on how
to store electricity so that wind energy can be
converted, stored, and contribute more to the
energy mix used in the United States.
Wind energy power plants are sometimes
called wind farms. Wind farms are large
arrays of wind turbines that are used to
generate electricity. Typically, a wind farm
may contain hundreds of wind turbines that
work together to produce large quantities
of electricity. Planning a wind farm is very

14

■ Resources in Technology

electricity. Capacity refers to the quantity of
power produced. A wind plant’s capacity
averages about 25 percent because it
operates only when the wind is blowing.
Fossil-fueled power plants however, have
capacities around 75 percent.
The generation of energy by wind farms
offers substantial benefits to consumers and
the environment. Wind farms produce no
water or air pollution and save valuable
fossil energies so that they may bc used for
other manufacturing and production
activities. The land that wind farms occupy
can be used for farming and ranching
activities. Wind farms are also less expensive
to construct than conventional power
generating facilities.

Other Energy Resources
There are a number of other energy
resources that can be considered as
alternative or unconventional. Geothermal
energy sources are available in many parts of
the world. California and Greenland both
use geothermal energy to produce heat and
electricity for homes and buildings. The
oceans of the world also provide a vast
resource of energy that is yet to be tapped.
Research and experimentation with the
temperature gradients of the ocean have led
to the construction of Ocean Thermal
Energy Conversion (OTEC) facilities where
the theory of the refrigeration cycle is
applied to produce electrical energy.
Nuclear energy is used by many nations of
the world for the production of electricity
and other uses, such as nuclear materials for
research, medical applications, and the
military.
Each of these energy resources have the
potential to provide power to extend human
capabilities in productive and economical
proportions. Additionally, each have unique
benefits and disadvantages. New and more
efficient conversion technologies will bc a
major factor in how and where our global
energy supplies come from.

Social/Cultural
With a few exceptions, nations that have
had abundant natural resources have
become the most advanced industrialized
nations in the world. On a global basis,
prior to 1900 the majority of energy and
power consumed was generated by humans
and animals. The invention of the steam
engine, internal combustion engine, and
electric motors and generators provided the
capability to produce seemingly ever
increasing amounts of power to meet the
agricultural and manufacturing needs of the
burgeoning industrial societies.

Resources in Technology ■

Today, we have a vast array of
technologies, appliances, and devices that
extend human capabilities and make life
very comfortable and nearly worry-free.
The developed nations of the world enjoy
an abundance of food in many varieties
from all kinds of climates. Technologies in
the areas of transportation, communication,
and production have enabled people to
move freely over great distances,
communicate across continents in
milliseconds, and enjoy a standard of living
that has not been known before!
The modern petroleum industry began a
discovery of oil in 1859 on the banks of Oil
Creek near Titusville, Pennsylvania. The
creek was named for the oily scum that
nearby inhabitants collected as a medicine
“cure-all” called Seneca Oil (named after
the Seneca Indians in the area). This
discovery altered the modern world and
created the great “oil rushes” in Texas,
Oklahoma, and other areas. Petroleum
rapidly replaced wale oil and coal oil as a
fuel for lamps during the late 1800s. New
uses for oil began to appear as the
industrialized world developed new
machines and technologies that required
larger amounts of energy.
The introduction of the automobile by
1900 ushered in a degree of personal
mobility that had never been available to so
many people before. Today, modern cars
travel across the land on super highways
with all the comforts that you can imagine.
Airplanes span continents in a matter of
hours. Previously, these trips took days or
months. In most all cases, modern
technology has been dependent on the
unique characteristics of oil as an energy
resource and raw material for
manufacturing. Petroleum energy
resources, unlike other energies, are easily
stored and provide a very concentrated
form of energy. It is easily transported and
very flexible as a chemical building block for a
variety of uses. While petroleum has many
very desirable characteristics, it does have to
be handled carefully. Accidental petroleum
spills are costly to the environment and to the
economy. Additionally, the burning of any
kind of fuel produces some form of
environmental pollution.
Concerns about the environment
encouraged research into alternative energy
resources, including solar energy. Passive solar
systems are not a new idea. Over 2,500 years
ago the people of ancient Greece built entire
cities that were designed to take advantage of
the sun and its climate. Roman villas and bath
houses were heated by solar energy. During
the last few years, extensive research on
buildings has provided a great deal of

information for architects, engineers, and
builders. The demand for energy conscious
designs has become a major part of die
building profession.
Renewable energy resources such as
solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal energies
hold the greatest hope for meeting the
world’s energy needs in the future because
they are essentially non-polluting. These
renewable resources stem directly or
indirectly for the sun’s radiation and
produce and infinite resource that is
replenishable. Many of these energy
resources were considered “experimental”
not too many years ago, but are now
competitive with traditional fuel resources.
Today, the world’s population uses about
60 times as much energy as was used at the
start of the industrial revolution. Nearly 80
percent of this energy comes from fossil
fuels. Alternative energy resources account
for approximately 18 percent of the current
energy needs. These energy resources offer
a bright prospect for an energy-rich world
with reduced environmental effects because
of global warming and emissions. As
renewable alternative energy resources
continue to become more competitive, they
will expand their part of the energy mix.

Math/Science
The source of our solar energy is the sun. It
is 93 million miles away from the earth.
The sun emits energy in the form of
electromagnetic radiation, including visible
light, infrared, and ultraviolet radiation.
Mathematical terms and formulas can be
used to accurately describe the quantity of
energy striking the earth. Three common
units of measure arc the solar constant,
Langley, and insolation. The solar constant
is the amount of solar radiation that reaches
the outer limits of the earth’s atmosphere.
A typical measurement for the solar
constant is about 536 BTUs/hour/square
foot. The Langley is a measure used to
describe weather patterns for a given
geographical area, over a period of one
year. Langleys are measured at the surface
of the earth and are an average unit of
measure. Solar insolation is defined as the
amount of solar radiation striking a flat
surface on the earth per square foot per
hour (BTUs/square foot/hour). A solar
Insolation Meter can bc used to measure
insolation or Solar Insolation tables may bc
used to approximate the solar insolation.
The position of the sun (time of day),
weather conditions, and particular season of
the year affect the insolation values for any
given day.
As we have seen earlier, photovoltaic cells
arc silicon semiconductors that are used to

15

convert solar energy into electricity.
Photovoltaic cells arc direct converters, that is
they require no intermediate conversion
process such as fossil-foeled converters or
wind turbines to produce electricity. This
Math/Science example will illustrate how we
can determine the efficiency of a solar array
and size an array for a given electrical load.
Assume that we have photovoltaic cell that
measures 0.75" X 1.50" and is capable of
producing 0.45 volts at 0.275 amperes at
noon on a clear day. Additionally, we have a
small radio that requires 3.0 volts at 0.06
amperes that we wish to power with our solar
array. Assume that the solar insolation is 255
BTUs/square foot/hour. Determine the
efficiency of a single photovoltaic cell and the
number of cells required for photovoltaic
array to power a small radio.

Design Brief: Design
Brief—Alternative Energy
Context
In many remote parts of the world,
countries do not have energy distribution
systems to supply people with even the
basic types of energy such as electricity or
heating fuels. In these remote locations,
heat for cooking, warmth, and light are
supplied by biomass fuels such as wood.
Basic necessities, such as drinking water or
water to irrigate crops, is carried in buckets
or retrieved from wells using hand pumps.
Many of these remote countries have an
abundance of alternative resources, which
can be harnessed to provide heat and light.
Wind and solar resources can offer simple
low technology solutions to some of these
energy needs.

Challenge
The energy of the sun can bc converted into
electricity for pumping water. A photovoltaic
array could be used to produce electricity very
simply. However, during periods of low
sunlight or at night, no electricity could be
converted and would require some type of
storage system. A possible solution would be
to use a rechargeable battery to store the
electrical energy produced during the day.
This could provide a relatively constant supply
of electricity.
Your challenge is to design and construct a
model water pumping station that is
self-contained and is powered by solar energy.

Objectives
1. Use problem solving and critical
thinking skills to plan and design an energy
system.
2. Apply math and science skills to solve
mathematical problems.

16

3. Use brainstorming and collaborative
learning strategies to develop teamworking
skills.
4. Use modelling materials to construct
an operational model.

Materials & Equipment
Modelling materials such as wood, plastics,
paints, and adhesives, battery-powered
water pump, rechargeable batteries,
photovoltaic cells, diode, electrical switch,
wire, and vinyl tubing.

Evaluation (includes feedback):
1. Present your completed solar water
system design to the class, identifying
unique features, and user considerations.
2. Describe why your design is appropriate
as compared to other energy technologies for
remote geographical locations.
3. Assess the impact that solar
technologies will have on energy
production and environmental
considerations.
4. Write a scenario describing the social
and economic impact of solar energy
systems in remote areas of the world.

Summary
As we have seen, there are a wide variety of
energy resources for the nations of the
world to choose from. Energy resources
may be classified as finite fossil energies or
renewable alternative energies. The access
and use of large amounts of energy is
necessary to support the economies of
heavily industrialized nations. However, as
societies around the world increase their
standards of living, increasing demands will
bc placed on traditional energy resources.
These demands will affect the supplies and
prices of energy and the quality of our
global environment. New developments in
cleaner burning fuels, as well as continued
development of renewable energy resources
will be required to maintain and improve
the quality of our environment.

Student Quiz
1. Nearly all forms of energy must be
before they can be used as a
source of power, (converted)
2. Coal, petroleum, and natural gas are
fossil energy resources. Fossil energy are
considered as________ resources,
(non-renewable)
3. Fossil energy resources are produced
over long periods of time by the decay of
matter, (vegetable)
4. The most plentiful fossil fuel resources
available in the United States is________ .
(Coal)

5. A standard unit of measure for heat
energy is the_________ (British Thermal
Unit or BTU)
6. Five non-fuel products that are
produced from fossil energy resources are:
(tires, varnish and naphtha, turpentine,
soaps and greases)
7. Alternative energy resources are
considered________ because they are
continually available and non-polluting,
(renewable)
8. Techniques for using solar energy
without the addition of pumps or special
conversion processes are classified as___ .
(passive solar energy)
9. Solar energy may be used to produce
electricity by using semiconductor cells
called_________ (photovoltaic cells)
10. Wind is a form of solar energy and is
the result of the uneven heating of the
earth’s surface by the_________ (sun)

Expected Student Outcomes
1. Define the term non-renewable energy
resource.
2. Define the term renewable energy
resource.
3. Describe how an energy resource may
be converted from one form to another.
4. List and describe products that may be
produced from fossil energy resources.
5. Describe how wind energy may be
converted into electricity.
6. Describe how solar energy may be
converted into useful forms of energy.
7. Describe how fossil energy resources
may be transported.
8. List advantages and disadvantages of
renewable and non-renewable energy
resources.

Energy Information Resources
The American Gas Association, 1515
Wilson Blvd., Arlington, VA 22209.
The American Coal Association, 1130 17th
St., N.W., Suite 220, Washington, DC
20036.
Edison Electric Institute, 701 Pennsylvania
Ave, N.W., Washington, DC 20004.
The Solar Industries Association, 777
North Capitol Street, N.W., Suite 805,
Washington, DC 20002.
US Council for Energy Awareness (Nuclear
Energy), 1776 1 Street, N.W., Suite 400,
Washington, DC 20006.

■ Resources in Technology

RESOURCES IN TECHNOLOGY

Technology of Music
James Flowers

hat is music? Why is one
person’s music just “noise”
to someone else? What are
the different ways music is
produced? Why do different musical
instruments make different sounds?
Whether or not a sound is musical can bc
a subjective judgement. In general,
“musical sounds arc those which arc
smooth, regular, pleasant and of definite
pitch. Unmusical sounds arc rough,
irregular, unpleasant, and of no definite
pitch” (Wood, 1975, p. 1). However, this
distinction is only approximate.
But what is sound? Simply put, sound is a
vibration. When a violin string vibrates, it
makes the front and back wooden plates of
the violin vibrate. These plates make the air
vibrate. A scries of longitudinal pressure
waves passes through the air to the cars.
The alternating higher and lower pressure
of these waves make the eardrums vibrate
and sound is heard.
The science of sound is called acoustics.
There arc many areas and applications of
acoustics. Musical acoustics is the science of
musical sounds. Architectural acoustics is
concerned with the behavior of sound in
and around structures. SONAR (SOund
NAvigation Ranging) can detect the
presence of submarines. Ultrasonics refers
to the use of sound waves that are too high
pitched for us to hear. Among the many
uses of ultrasonics is its ability to produce a
picture of a developing fetus. Unlike X-rays,
ultrasound does not pose a radiation
hazard. Nearly all areas of acoustics involve
the same basic areas: sound propagation,
sound transmission and sound reception.
Music is a form of communication. It
begins with the musician (sender) using an
instrument (encoder) to produce a series of
sounds (coded message). The sounds are
transmitted from one place to another
through the air (channel). A listener
(receiver) uses his or her ear (decoder) to
make sense of the sounds. As with other art
forms, the decoded message is not
necessarily the same message that the
musician intended to transmit. This can
work to our advantage; the same piece of
music can make us feel different each time
we hear it.
Most musical sounds have three basic
characteristics: pitch, loudness and timbre.
Pitch refers to how high or low we perceive
a note to be. Loudness is our impression of
the strength of the sound. Timbre is the
“color” of a sound. A bamboo flute and an

W

17

electric guitar may bc able to each play a
note of the same pitch and loudness, but
the two notes sound different due to their
timbre.
There have been recent advances in
musical technology. Most of these concern
the electronic manipulation of musical
information. Historically, musical
technology has primarily involved the
instruments used to make music. After
briefly classifying musical instruments, there
will be examination some relatively new
musical technologies and a closer look at
what sound is.

Contemporary Analysis

Musical Instruments
Musical instruments can bc separated into
five different classifications (Campbell and
Created, 1988): ideophones,
membranophones, chordophones,
aerophones and electrophones.
Ideophones include rattles, xylophones,
thumb pianos, jaw harps, gongs and
triangles. They all produce sounds without
the application of additional tension, unlike
drum skins and strings. The materials
making up these instruments have natural
tonal properties. A membranophone
produces sound with a skin or membrane.
Usually, the membrane is stretched over an
opening and is struck. Drums produce
sound this way. However, a kazoo is a
membranophone that works by blowing air
across a membrane. Chordophones, such
as violins, guitars and pianos, use vibrating
strings to produce sounds. However, a
vibrating string is not very loud. In order to
increase the volume (amplitude) of the
sound, each of these instruments has a
soundboard made out of wood. The
soundboard is carefully manufactured,
usually out of a piece of spruce that has very
straight grain. Special attention is given to
the thickness of the soundboard and the
placement of braces. Braces stiffen certain
areas of a soundboard; they divide a
soundboard into smaller sections. Each of
these smaller sections is of a proper size to
resonate when a certain tone is produced.
The different areas of a soundboard
respond differently depending on the
frequency of a string’s vibrations.
Aerophones produce sound with a
vibrating column of air. A flute produces a
very clear sound. One type of aerophone,
which includes flutes and whistles, produces
very clear sounds directing a continuous
stream of air against a sharp edge, splitting
the stream of air. If the angle and air
velocity are just right, the air will tend to go
first to one side, then to another, in a
rhythmic fashion. The frequency of this

18

Figure 2. Signal produced from an ADSR unit in a music synthesizer. Signal amplitude (vertical) is
plotted against time (horizontal). Wave 1 is a triangular carrier wave with the amplitude envelope shown
in 2. A = attack time; D = initial decay time; S = sustain level; and R = release time.

directional shift in air determines the pitch
we hear. The sound produced is called an
edgetone. Another type of aerophone,
which includes oboes, clarinets and
saxophones, uses flexible cane reeds that
vibrate at a frequency based on the size of
the column of air in the instrument.
The fifth classification of musical
instrument is the electrophone.
Electrophones produce electronically
amplified sounds. There are three types of
electrophones. The first type relics on an
acoustic (i.e., non-electronic) production of
the original sound. An acoustic guitar is
capable (as a chordophone) of producing
sounds independently of electronic
amplification. However, by putting a small
transducer or a microphone on an acoustic
guitar, we can change the guitar into an
acoustic-electric guitar. Preamps can bc
used to modify the signals from these
transducers before they reach an electronic
amplifier. Some of these preamps are small
enough for bass players and guitarists to clip >
onto their belts. Typically, they allow a
musician to make rough adjustments to the
different frequency ranges (bass, midrange
and treble). The signal from these
transducers can also be mixed with a
microphone’s signal. The user can
separately adjust gain, bass, treble and phas< :
control for the separate signals and for the
mixed signal.
A second type of electrophone is an
instrument that produces sound with a

vibrating clement, but is not capable of
adequate acoustic amplification. These
instruments rely on electronic amplification.
A solid-body electric guitar is an example;
without electronic amplification, these
guitars are very quiet.
A third type of electrophone relics solely
on electronics to synthetically produce (or
synthesize) and amplify sounds. This means
that we can create new, “unnatural”
sounds. Robert Moog and Donald Buchla
separately developed the first commercial
synthesizers around 1966 (Elsea, 1990).
These synthesizers use voltage-controlled
oscillators, amplifiers and filters to produce
sound. Greater control over the sounds is
made possible with an ADSR envelope
generator. This allows a musician to
customize the attack time (A), the initial
decay time (D), the sustain level (S) and the
release time (R) (see Figure 2).

Advances in Acoustic Musical
Technology Throughout our history,
people have been inventing and changing
musical instruments. Ovation Guitars
produced the Roundback, a guitar with a
molded plastic body. However, certain
instruments reached a plateau in their
evolution many years ago. The violin, for
example, has not changed significantly in
hundreds of years. In fact, many luthiers
(i.e., stringed instrument makers) today try
as best they can to copy very old violins,
such as those made by Stradivari. But this

■ Resources in Technology

does not mean that musical technology has
stood still for those instruments.
Technology has been used to find out what
makes a fine violin sound so pleasing.
Researchers have studied wood anatomy in
relation to violin tone (Bond, 1976),
acoustical effects of violin varnish
(Schelleng, 1968) and the tuning of violin
plates.
Joseph Nagyvary (1988) examined the
wood in old violins. He found that the
wood in some eighteenth century violins
made by Antonio Stradivari and other
master luthiers contained two items not
normally found in present day instruments:
high salt concentrations and evidence of
microbes. No doubt, the logs used to make
these old violins were transported or stored
in salt water. Unlike some other wood
fungi, sapstain fungus does not feed on the
cell walls in wood; it lives off the contents
of living wood cell cavities. However, by
growing from one cell to the next, sapstain
tends to increase the porosity of wood.
Wood that is more porous will tend to
absorb more finish at a greater depth than
less porous wood. Since his discovery,
Nagyvary has experimented with
microbially modified spruce and different
violin varnishes containing glass to produce
high-quality modern instruments.
Nagyvary, and others, are continuing to
advance acoustic musical technology,
however, many of the latest breakthroughs
have come in the area of electronic musical
technology.

Advances in Electronic Musical
Technology
Hooking together many electronic musical
devices on a stage or in a recording studio
can bc very complicated. In the past, if you
wanted to attach one brand of keyboard to
another manufacturer’s controller and a
third manufacturer’s speaker system, you
were often out of luck. Different
manufacturers had different configurations
on their products—some devices just could
not communicate with other devices. To
overcome this problem, a protocol or
standard was developed in the early 1980’s.
It is the Musical Instrument Digital
Interface, abbreviated MIDI (O’Donnell,
1991 ). Now, devices that use MIDI can
communicate with one another.
MIDI is not audio information. It is a
specified language regarding musical
performance. Different performance
gestures, not actual sounds, are
electronically communicated. For example,
an output device might be instructed how
and when to play a specified note or to
change that note in a certain way. There arc
also instructions to change the program and
select a new type of sound. The final output
is limited by the ability of the devices to
carry out MIDI instructions. Switching to a
specified sound on a master keyboard may
not cause the output device to play that
same sound. “If program 23 on the master
controller is selected, the receiving device
will call up its own patch 23, without
regard for the nature of that sound”
(O’Donnell, 1991, p. 78). MIDI operators

Figure 3. Master Tracks Pro® is a MIDI sequencer program far personal computers. (Courtesy of Passport
Designs, Inc.®)

Resources in Technology ■

must be aware of the abilities of all their
equipment in order to produce the desired
sounds.
Electronically encoded MIDI messages
pass along a cable from one device to
another. There arc sixteen independent
channels in that cable. If the sender and
receiver are on the same channel, they can
communicate. Cables that connect MIDI
devices plug into three different types of
MIDI ports: In, Out and Thru. All three
ports accept a round, 5-pin jack, but they
serve different functions. An “In” port
allows a device to receive MIDI
information. After processing, information
is output through the “Out” port. The
third type of port, “Thru,” outputs a
duplicate of the information coming into
the “In” port. MIDI signals can only travel
in one direction in a MIDI cable. They
either travel from an “Out” to an “In” or
from a “Thru” to an “In.”
A sampler is an electronic input device
similar to a tape recorder. It allows the user
to digitally record sounds. The sounds are
captured and converted to binary electronic
information using an analog-to-digital
converter (ADC) (Burger, 1991). A
musician can then store this information
(usually on a hard disc drive), edit and
retrieve the digitized samples. Finally, the
edited binary signals are sent to an output
device called a digital-to-analog converter
(DAC). “A sampling rate of 44.1 kHz is
normally required for professional results,
due to the full frequency response it yields”
(Burger, 1991, p. 60).
The sampler is connected to a source of
sound, such as a CD, tape deck, mixer or
microphone. Nearly any type of sound can
be sampled: a dog’s bark, the sound of a jet
taking off, a doorbell, a heartbeat. Many
sound samplers arc equipped with their
own library of sounds. After recording (or
sampling) the sound, it can be assigned to a
pad or key on a keyboard. The sound can
be looped or repeated just by pressing that
key.
A sequencer is an input and processing
device. It is similar to multitrack tape in that
it allows a musician to record on separate
tracks. It is also similar to a player piano
roll, because a sequencer does not record
any sound; instead it records which notes
were played, when they were played, how
long they were held, etc. (Phillips, 1991 ).
Guitars and electronic drum systems are
also used for input of MIDI information.
The drum system in Figure 4 is compact
and lightweight. With a built-in sequencer,
the drummer has much more control over

19

Figure 4. Compact Drum
System.® (Photo courtesy of
Roland Corporation US.®)

the personal computer one step further, we
can incorporate movies, animation,
graphics, sound and music into a single
master control file (see Figure 7).

Social/Cultural Impacts
What will be the impacts of the increasing
sophistication of electronic music
technology? What are some predictions for
the future of music technology?
Musical electronics have been rapidly
advancing, but the interface through which
humans control and manipulate the
technology has not kept pace. Tiny buttons,
poor display screens, complex keystroke
commands and poorly responsive keyboards
have led Robert Moog (1990), developer
of some of the first music synthesizers, to
conclude:

the performance. Using headphones, you
can even practice without waking up the
neighbors.
In one sampler/sequencer by Roland
(see Figure 5), 24 samples can be played
simultaneously. A disc jockey can stretch or
compress samples without changing the
pitch. Samples can bc monitored on
headphones without interrupting the
music. Because of their format, samples can
bc saved to disk. You can even make a
record of every pad and key that the DJ
presses and assign this timed scries of
keystrokes to a single key. This allows very
complex mixes to be performed with just a
few keystrokes.
Once a sound is sampled, a sound editor
allows the user to edit the sound. It can be
elongated or shrunk to fit a precise time
slot. Besides editing a sampled sound, some
software packages, such as Passport’s
Alchemy (see Figure 6), allow a musician to
design completely new sounds “from
scratch.” The waves of these sounds can be
precisely altered to the user’s satisfaction.
Whether sounds are sampled or created by
a computer, they can bc edited and blended
in a professional sound designer and editor.
Since most of the music we hear is mono
or stereo, it is common for all the separate
tracks to be mixed into just one (for mono)
or two (for stereo). Whether or not MIDI
is involved, recording technicians use
mixers to create their impressions of the

20

best sound blend. Mixers offer separate
controls for gain, fading, location, etc., for
each of the tracks to be blended. Mixing is
an art; it requires sensitivity, creativity and
patience.
MIDI does not require a personal
computer. However, by linking a computer
with a MIDI interface to a MIDI system, a
musician can have much greater control
over the music produced. A personal
computer can now not only take the place
of a mixing studio, it can replace an entire
orchestra of instruments. Taking MIDI and

Now we have to go through a period of
matching the capabilities of digital
instruments to those of the human
musician. We’ll have to go back to oldtimey mechanical manufacturing
technology to come up with finely tuned
performance controllers and specialized
data entry surfaces that are ergonomically
optimized, (p. 37)
One trend in musical technology is a
greater reliance on computers for the
manipulation of musical information. As
with other computer applications, after
hardware is developed, software continues
to be developed to take better advantage of
the hardware’s capabilities. This often
results in a time lag between the
introduction of new hardware and the
introduction of the software that takes best
advantage of that hardware. Within a
relatively short time, the hardware may be
^placed by newer, more advanced

Figure 5. Roland DJ-70 Sampling Workstation.® (Photo courtesy of Roland Corporation US.®)

hardware. Because of the relatively short life
of “state of the art” computer hardware,
some systems never reach their full
potential; before the software can bc fully
developed, a new “state of the art”
hardware system is introduced. Consumers,
therefore, have tended to be overly
conscious of advances in computer
hardware. Hartley Peavey (1990), president
of Peavey Electronics, predicts a change in
this trend:
We arc approaching the end of the
“hardware era” and rapidly approaching
the “software era” of electronic music.
More and more electronic music
equipment is becoming software-driven
to allow for sounds, features, and
functions not included in the original
system, (p. 40)
Raymond Kurzweil (1990), of Kurzweil
Music Systems, predicts that “music will
move bit by bit away from passive
entertainment toward an active, learning
experience” (p. 30). He envisions a
participatory listener of music; the musical
composition will change based on signals
from the listener, which may be as
involuntary as “subtle facial expressions,
muscular tension, perhaps even brainwaves”
(p. 30).
Because of recent advances in musical
technology, it is now possible for a single
musician, working alone, to play music that
would have previously required a number
of musicians and many different
instruments. This independence may result
in more isolation and less social/musical
interaction with other musicians. David
Kusek ( 1990), the president of Passport
Designs, offers a personal comment:
“If people in large numbers begin to
produce music all alone or use the
technology to replace the stimulating
environment of a group of musicians, I
think that will be a sad day. Despite the
unlimited potential offered by these
instruments, I hope manufacturers can
develop products that help avoid
electronic musicians’ propensity to play
alone, (p. 34)”
Jerry Harrison (1990), keyboard player
for the Talking Heads and band leader for
Causal Gods, notes that there has been a
tendency for users of electronic musical
instruments “to become librarians, rather
than creators of sound” (p. 43). He
predicts a change in the future as musicians
rediscover their power to shape their own
sounds.

Resources in Technology ■

Figure 7. Passport Produce?® is a computer software package for assembling multimedia presentations. It
allows the user to synchronize movies, animation, graphics, sound and music into a single file. (Courtesy of
Passport Designs, Inc.®)

David Schwartz (1990), editor-in-chief
and co founder of Mix Magazine, is
amazed at the rate of technological
development in electronic music. However,
he states that our present “tool building
outpaced our creative musical development.
Perhaps when we catch up, we’ll see a new
Renaissance in music making” (p. 46).

Technology/Math/Science Interface
Most musical sound waves are periodic.
This means that the motion of vibrating

particles tends to repeat in regular cycles.
The duration of time from one cycle to the
next is called the period of the vibration.
Waves in the ocean have a period also. You
can calculate their period by measuring the
time between successive wave peaks at any
one place.

Figure 8 is a graph for a periodic
compression wave. The center horizontal
line represents ambient air pressure. Above
that line, the air pressure is temporarily

21

greater. Points b,f and j are all located at
the crests of waves. The vertical distance
between the centerline and these points of
greatest compression determines the
amplitude of the wave. Points d and h
represent the lowest pressure; low pressure
areas are called rarefactions. The wave
begins at point a. Air pressure builds to a
maximum at point b. As the pressure then
drops, it passes its original level at c and
reaches a minimum at d. Upon returning to
its original level at e, the wave has
completed one full period.
The frequency at which a compression
wave’s vibrations occur determines, for the
most part, the pitch of a sound. Pitch is our
perception of how high a tone is.
Frequency (f) is usually measured in cycles
per second (cps) or Hertz (Hz); it is a
measure of how frequently waves arrive.
One kiloHertz ( 1 kHz) is equal to one
thousand Hertz. A piano with 88 keys can
produce notes with frequencies from about
26 Hz to about 4200 Hz. The period is the
reciprocal of the frequency:
T = 1 / f [alternative form: f = 1 / T
where:
f = frequency (in Hertz or cycles per
second)
T = period (seconds)
For example, what is the period of an E
note with a frequency of 78 Hz?

The Speed of Sound in Various Materials

Solution

T = 1 /f
T = 1 / 78 Hz
T = 0.0128 sec.

Sound travels different speeds in different
materials (see Table 1). Fortunately, air is a
“non-dispersive” medium for sound waves.
That means that sound waves of different
frequencies tend to stay together.
The speed of sound in air at a
temperature of20°C is approximately 344
meters per second (mps), or 1130 feet per
second or 770 miles per hour. In general,
the speed of sound in air increases about
0.6 mps for every 1°C temperature increase
(Hall, 1980). At 30°C, the speed of sound
in air is about 350 mps. The speed of
sound, like the speed of anything else, can
bc calculated by dividing the distance
traveled by the time:
c = d / t [alternative forms: 6 = d / c;
d = ct
where:
c = speed of sound (in meters per
second)
d = distance the sound travels in a given
time period (in meters)
t = time period (in seconds)
For example, what is the speed of sound in

22

Table 1
The Speed of Sound in Various Materials

a new composite material if a sound wave
moves 20 meters in 0.01 seconds?
Solution

c=d/t
c = 20 m / 0.01 sec
c = 2000 mps
Since 344 meters is slightly more than
one-third of a kilometer, we can say that
sound travels one kilometer in about 3
seconds in air. By counting the seconds in

the delay between a flash of lightning and
the report or sound wave, you can divide
your count by 3 to roughly determine the
distance to the lightning strike in
kilometers.
The wavelength (X) of a sound is the
linear distance between consecutive waves.
It can bc computed based on the speed of
sound and the frequency of the sound.
X = c / f [alternative forms: c = fX;
f=c/X]

■ Resources in Technology

where:
X= wavelength (in meters)
c= speed of sound (in meters per second)
f= frequency (in Hertz or cycles per second)
For example, at a temperature of 20°C, a
trumpet plays a note with a frequency of
220 cps. What is the wavelength of the
note?

ruler to make sounds. She holds one end of
the ruler down against her desk. The other
end hangs off the edge of the desk. When
she thumps the overhanging edge, a tone is
produced. She has a code sheet that assigns
different numbers to gestures such as:
thump softly, thump hard, dampen, slide
ruler toward edge, slide ruler away from
edge.

Solution
X=c/f
X = 344 mps/220 cps
X = 1.564 m

Although the ability to hear is different in
different people, in general, humans can
hear sounds with frequencies as low as 20
Hz and as high as 20 kHz (Hall, 1980).
Below 20 Hz, we can still feel vibrations,
but they do not seem to have any sound. If
you blow a high-pitched dog whistle, it
does not seem to make any sound, but your
dog can hear it. This is because dogs can
hear higher pitched sounds than humans
can hear.
Pitch is only one of three properties that
characterize a tone. The other two
properties are loudness and timber. The
loudness of a sound is determined by rate at
which vibrating particles impart energy to
our eardrums. In general, loudness
increases as the amplitude of the pressure
wave increases, but loudness is also affected
by the wave’s frequency and shape
(Campbell and Greated, 1988). Timbre
refers to the tone color, that is, the
character of tone produced by a certain
method. A violin, flute and electric guitar
can all play the same note at the same
volume. However, the tones from the three
instruments will sound different. Analysis of
the sound waves reveals that all three have
roughly the same frequency, period and
amplitude. It is the roughness and
irregularities in the waves, evident in Figure
6, that arc different.

Design Brief
Designing and Coding a Musical
Instrument

Context
A new band is forming at your school called
“Original Numbers.” The musicians in the
band play their instruments according to
numerically coded commands. To join the
group, you must have two things. First, you
must have an original musical instrument
that you invented. Second, there must bc a
number code corresponding to different
performance gestures on the instrument.
One of the band members uses a wooden

Resources in Technology ■

Challenge
Using only the materials specified, design
and construct an original musical
instrument capable of producing sounds of
different frequencies. Make a list of
different performance actions/commands
possible on your instrument, assigning a
name and number for each (starting with
the number 1).

Time Limit: 20 minutes.

Objectives
1. Demonstrate creative problem solving
skills.
2. Investigate musical technology.
3. Experiment with sound production.
4. Develop a coding system for musical
performance.

Materials
Empty aluminum cans, balloons, empty
bottles, paper, waxed paper, rubber bands,
string, water, nails, and strips of pine
measuring 1/4 X 3/4" X 15.

Evaluation (includes feedback)
1. You will have 30 seconds to present
your instruments to the class. Your
presentation will include the instrument’s
design and construction. You arc to briefly
play a few sounds on your instrument for
the class. Afterwards, there may bc a brief
class discussion or questions.
2. All musicians will assemble with their
instruments and performance code sheets.
The instructor will “conduct” the
musicians by holding up cards with number
on each card. When a number is held up,
comply with the corresponding
performance gesture on your code sheet.
3. Your code was developed for your own
instrument. Write a paragraph explaining
how the code might be different if you had
tried to develop it for all the instruments in
the band.

Summary
Musical instruments can be classified as
cither ideophones, membranophones,
chordophones, aerophones or
electrophones. While there is still scientific
interest in all types of instruments, the

biggest change of late has been in electronic
musical instruments. Synthesizers allow a
musician to customize a sound, often by
changing the ADSR envelope. MIDI was
developed to improve communication
between electronic music devices; MIDI
devices input, process and output codes
regarding performance gestures.
The purpose of most musical
technologies is to create music. Music is a
form of communication that uses sound.
Sound is a longitudinal wave of pressure. If
the wave is periodic with a frequency
between 20 Hz and 20 kHz, we can hear a
distinct pitch caused by that frequency.
Loudness and timber are two other
characteristics of musical sound. Sound
travels about 344 mps in 20°C air, but its
speed varies directly with air temperature.
The speed of sound is different when it
travels through different materials.
As musical technology advances, we
should keep it in perspective. It is a tool
that allows us great control over the sounds
produced, but are the sounds we produce
expressive and beautiful? We should
overcome the urge to become slaves to the
new musical technologies (i.e., hardware
and software “junkies.”) Instead, we should
use musical technologies, old and new, to
broaden and enhance our expressiveness.

Possible Student Outcomes
1. Analyze the components of musical
sound.
2. Classify musical instruments and
describe their production of sound.
3. Identify recent advances in musical
technology.
4. Describe the impacts of musical
technology on society.

Student Quiz
1. What are acoustics?
2. Describe music in terms of a
communications model.
3. List five different families of musical
instruments.
4. What is the approximate speed of
sound in 10°C air?
5. If you see a flash of lightning, and six
seconds later you hear the thunder, about
how many miles away will the lightning
strike?
6. What do the letters in MIDI stand for?
7. What does a sequencer do?
8. Give an example of recent research into
violin technology.
9. Describe the major shifts in musical
technology in the 20th Century.
10. Discuss two impacts of electronic music
production on the musician and society.

23

References
Bond, C. W. ( 1976). Wood anatomy in
relation to violin tone. Journal of the
Institute of Wood Science, 7(3), 22-33.
Burger, J. (1991). EM guide to samplers.
Electronic Musician, 7(7), 59-62.
Campbell, M., & Created, C. (1988). The
musiciansguide to acoustics. New York:
Schirmer Books.
Elsea, P. (1990). Inventors and iconoclasts.
Electronic Musician, 6( 12), 70-73.
Everest, F. A. (1989). The master handbook
of acoustics (3rd ed.). Blue Ridge
Summit, PA: Tab Books Inc.
Hall, D. E. (1980). Musical acoustics: An
introduction. Belmont, GA: Wadsworth
Publishing Co.
Harrison, J. (1990). Looking ahead:
Visions for the 1990’s: Jerry Harrison.
Electronic Musician, 6( 1 ), 43.
Kurzweil, R. (1990). Looking ahead:
Visions for the 1990’s: Raymond
Kurzweil. Electronic Musician, 6(1), 30.
Kusek, D. (1990). Looking ahead: Visions
for the 1990’s: Dave Kusek. Electronic
Musician, 6(1), 34.
Moog, R. (1990). Looking ahead: Visions
for the 1990’s: Bob Moog. Electronic
Musician, 6( 1 ), 36-37.
Nagyvary, J. (1988, May 23). The
chemistry of a Stradivarius. Chemistry
and Engineering News, pp. 24-31.
O’Donnell, B. (1991). What is MIDI,
anyway? Electronic Musician, 7( 1 ),
74-79.
Peavey, H. D. (1990). Looking ahead:
Visions for the 1990’s: Hartley Peavey.
Electronic Musician, 6(1), 38-40.
Phillips, D. ( 1991 ). How sequencers work.
Electronic Musician, 7(4), 86-91.
Schelleng, J. C. (1968). Acoustical effects
of violin varnish. Journal of the Acoustical
Society ofAmerica, 44, 1175-1181.
Schwartz, D. (1990). Looking ahead:
Visions for the 1990’s: David Schwartz.
Electronic Musician, 6( 1 ), 45-46.
Wood, A. (1975). The physics of music. New
York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Experiment—The Speed of Sound
(The following experiment is based on
Hall, 1980.)

Purpose
To measure the speed of sound in air and to
verify the relationship between speed of
sound and air temperature.

Hypothesis
Sound will travel through air at 344 meters
per second (mps) at 20°C. If the air the air

24

temperature is not 20°C, then the speed of
sound will be 0.6 mps higher for every °C
over 20°C, or 0.6 mps lower for every °C
under 20°C.

Elementary Design
Brief—A Variety of
Sounds

Equipment

Context

Large outside masonry wall with about 40
meters of space in front of it
Thermometer
Watch (indicating time in seconds)
Tape rule

Some musicians try to get a wide variety of
sounds from their instruments. A guitarist
might drum on the guitar. A drummer
might tap the drumsticks against the rim of
a drum.

Challenge

Procedure
Stand 30 to 40 m away from the wall.
Record rhe air temperature (temp). Clap
your hands once and listen for the echo.
Now clap your hands at a steady rate where
the echo returns exactly in between two
consecutive claps. Using that rate of
clapping, have a partner time how long it
takes for 10 claps. Bc careful: if you start
timing on clap number 1 you should stop
timing on clap number 11. Record this
time in seconds as “t,.” Measure and
record the distance to the wall in meters as
“d,.”

Data Analysis
Every clap sent a sound wave that traveled
to the wall and back to your ear.
Therefore, the distance traveled by every
sound wave was equal to twice your
distance to the wall. Compute d by
multiplying dl by 2.
In order to find t, remember that the
sound wave made the round trip to the wall
and back in only half the time between two
claps. Since there were 10 claps, compute t
by dividing t1 by 20.
Next determine the speed of sound (c) in
mps by using the equation c = d / t.
Using 344 mps as the theoretical speed
of sound at 20°C, compute the theoretical
speed of sound (cth) at your recorded
temperature. Remember that for each
degree above 20°C you should add 0.6 mps
to 344 mps, and for each degree below
20°C you should subtract 0.6 mps from
344 mps.

Using only the assigned materials, make as
many different sounds as you can. You will
have two minutes to experiment with
different sound before a competition begins.

Objectives
1. Demonstrate creative problem-solving
skills.
2. Investigate musical technology.
3. Experiment with sound production.

Materials and Equipment
Each student will be assigned one of the
following sets of materials:
Set A: 2 sheets of paper
Set B: 2 rubber bands
Set C: 2 blocks of wood (1" X 4" X 12")

Evaluation (includes feedback)
After two minutes of experimentation,
students will stand quietly in rows
according to their group. (Group A used
the paper, Group B the rubber bands and
Group C the wood.) Following the
teacher’s directions, the first student in
Group A will demonstrate a sound. Next
the first students in Group B and then C
will demonstrate one example each. The
teacher will ask the second student in
Group A to demonstrate a different sound.
If that student does not make a new sound,
he or she passes and sits down and the next
Group A student gets a chance. The
competition continues until only one
student is standing. This student is crowned
“Dr. Music” for the day.

Conclusions
How does the theoretical speed of sound at
your recorded temperature (cth) compare to
the value you computed for c? Arc the two
values as close as you expected considering
the techniques used? Why is measuring the
time for 10 claps more precise than just
measuring the time between a clap and its
echo?

■ Resources in Technology

RESOURCES IN TECHNOLOGY

ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Products from Super
Stuff
James A. Jacobs

Figure 1: Gore-Tex ® expanded PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) polymer acts as ideal replacementsfor
human tissue. For cardiovascular diseased portions ofarteries, expanded PTFE tubes offer strong,
biocompatible substitutes that carry blood at high pressures without leaking. Gore-Tex vasculargrafts have
been implanted in patients ofall agesfrom newborns to very old, and are used in nearly every part of the
body. [W.L. Gore & Associates!

mart materials, high performance
ceramics, advanced composites,
engineered plastics, high
temperature superconductors,
biodegradable plastics, electroceramics,
liquid crystal polymers, buckyballs, artificial
skin, aerogels, biomimetic materials,
atomscopic materials, diamond films, shape
memory alloys, nanocomposites, Metglas,
super alloys and biomaterials. These names
appear in the news everyday as
announcements of recent innovations and
in advertisements of new products. You
might also see some of these materials listed
on labels and in descriptions of items for
purchase. What makes them different from
the old familiar materials that we have
become accustomed to in our products?
Why have designers decided to select
advanced materials over traditional
materials? How might the use of advanced
materials affect your future in terms of
career preparation, consumer matters, and
environment?
In this module you will learn about the
forces pushing developments of advanced
materials or Super Stuff and some of the
materials technology involved in their
synthesis and processing. You will also gain
an appreciation for how these new materials
will affect your future. Figure 1 serves to
illustrate the nature of advanced materials.
The artist’s rendering shows how an
advanced polymer, Gore-Tex expanded
PTFE, serves as an ideal replacement for
human tissue. Gore-Tex, a remarkable new
polymer, represents the ever growing list of
new advanced materials. Each of the main
groups (polymers, ceramics, metals and
composites) of our Family of Materials,
continue to see high performance,
“advanced materials,” added to the array of
engineering materials.
This module builds on knowledge that
you may have acquired from reading the
previous “Resources in Technology”
modules which I have published in The
Technology Teacher, a listing below gives all
the titles in this series. This module is
designed to help increase your awareness of
die Materials Technology. Through this
knowledge you can become a better citizen,
wiser consumer and also develop
competencies which will be usefill in your
career.
Related Resources in Technology (RIT)
modules published in The Technology
Teacher: “New Materials,” May/July
1985), “Nature & Properties,” December

S

25

Technology Leads to Science
Table 1 from Rustum Roy’s paper ( Roy,
1992), provides a historical perspective of
how the evolution of materials technology
sparked progress in human history. Note
the post WW II period is labeled the silicon
age by Professor Roy, a world renowned
materials scientist, technology/science
educator, and very successful researcher.
He predicts the next era will be that of
advanced materials known as nano
composites: new materials designed and
made at scales of 0.1 to 10 nm. | A
nanometer is 10 9 or 1 / 1,000,000,000
meter. | Among the points of Roy’s paper:

♦

1985; “Composites Materials,” March
1986; “Ceramics Materials,”May/July
1986; “Polymeric Materials,” January
1988; “Metallic Materials,” March 1988;
“Engineering Materials-Biomaterials,
Electronic Materials and Lubricants,”
December 1988; “Superconductors and
other Electromagnetic Materials,” February
1989; Manufacturing Processes: New
Methods for the “Materials Age,”
May/June, 1990; “Recycling Plastics:
Technology for an Improved
Environment,” Septcmbcr/October 1990;
“Materials Selection: Complex
Problem-Solving,” April 1991; “Materials
Degradation & Failure: Assessment of
Structure & Properties,” December 1991;
“Materials Cycle,” February 1992.

Materials Technology and Society
Since the beginning of civilization, people
sought to improve upon natural resources.
The uses and modification of natural
materials allowed for advancement of
civilization. Placing ceramic (stone) arrow
points in sticks to create a spear that had a
tough shaft with a very hard sharp point
represented early materials technology. So
did the mixing of straw into clay to produce<
a tougher (composite) brick. In more
recent times, we learned addition of carbon
and other elements into iron yielded the
versatile alloy steel. With proper alloy
combinations present, heat treating of steel
can yield varying grades from one very hare

26

to so it cuts other metals to another very
tough that allows constant impact; many
other desirable mechanical property are
possible through alloying. Iron and steel
launched a new age of technology with
tremendous societal impacts.

The Materials Age
Our current period of civilization goes by
such labels as Information Age and Space
Age. The National Research Council,
comprised of members of the National
Academy of Sciences, the National
Academy of Engineering, and the Institute
of Medicine, considers this era the
Materials Age. Just as the Stone Age,
Bronze Age, and Iron Age have become
fixed in history, the Materials Age denotes
the materials influence over how this
current era of history gained technological
advancements. During the Stone Age,
creative uses of rocks and clay for building
materials, weapons, tools, and cooking and
storage utensils help improve human
existence. Through the last two centuries
up until World War II (WW II), major
developments with metallurgy and metal
processing technology allowed
development of engines, motors,
machinery, transportation vehicles,
weapons, appliances and more. Since WW
II polymers (especially plastics) and
ceramics (especially silicon) under went
major developments that resulted in new
technology.

• Technology most often leads, not
follows, science
• “Progress” of human history has been
marked by new materials (Table 1 )
• Materials give substance to hope
• Frequently, discovery of new materials
give rise to whole new technologies,
examples: semiconductor/computer,
electronics and aerospace technologies
• Breakthroughs in Advanced Materials
over the next 25 years must involve
tailoring micro-* and nano-composites
• Materials science, engineering, and
technology must include environmental
and conservation goals, focusing on very
large human needs of people in poorer
regions
On his first point, throughout history
innovators and skilled crafters have utilized
the resources available to them for
technological break through. We are often
lead to believe that basic science (physics,
chemistry and biology) usually provides the
first steps to innovation; but quite the
contrary, science often follows as a means to
help explain a technological advancement
and allow further improvements. Ancient
crafters of wrought iron swords, investment
casting and hugh stone monuments did not
have the benefit of modern metallurgy nor
materials science. Innovators in those days
created technology that science would later
explain or try to explain. The atom bomb is
often presented as a triumph of science
when it represented application of
considerable technology. High temperature
superconductors were developed in manner
that went against the prevailing scientific
understanding of ceramics as
nonconductors. To explain this new
technology, theories were developed and
are now being tested and refined. Often
serendipity (a discovery occurs that is
different than that which was being sought)
leads to a new material such as teflon and
polyethylene.

■ Resources in Technology

Roy provides a strong rationale for
classifying science as “applied technology”
rather than the familiar approach of labeling
technology as “applied science.” Of key
importance to new technology and new
science, is the ability of engineers,
technicians and technologists to develop
instruments that can achieve the processes
generated through scientific research and
theory.

* 10 6 meter

Contributions from the
Materials Age
The Information Age came about because
of materials advancements that provided
electronic, optical and magnetic materials
for computer chips, magnetic storage disks
and tape, optical fibers, lasers, ceramic
magnets, and more. The Space Age resulted
from the ability to make strong, lightweight
advanced composites for improved design
of air and spacecraft with better fuel
efficiency; high temperature advanced
metals and advanced ceramics for better
engines and rockets; harder, tougher
cutting tools for machining new metal
alloys to closer tolerances; many new
synthesis for making advanced materials;

Use Started In

[wood]

Millions of
Tons/Year

Resources Needed

Products

Properties
Utilized

3,000,000 B.C.
(natural composites)

1-10,000

renewable, but somewhat
geographically limited

building

mechanical

<10,000 B.C.

1-10,000

SiC>2, AI2O3, CaO, MgO
Fe2O3
universally available
no resource problem for
any nation

pottery
glass - bulk - optical
cement; refractories;
cutting tools;
diamonds; turbines

mechanical

viable ores geographically
very uneven

myriad products
steel, copper,
aluminum alloys

mechanical

| CERAMICS |

1,000

Incl. cement

| METALS |

5,000 B.C.

iron = 500
others = <500

optical

electrical

electrical

| SEMICONDUCTORS |

1940

«.001

no resource issue

small electrical
devices

electrical

| POLYMERS |

1900

-100+

petroleum (now)

containers,
furniture,
textiles

mechanical
(electrical)

[COMPOSITES]

1950

1-10

not important

furniture to
airplanes

mechanical
(electrical)

Resources in Technology ■

27

and new advanced processes for cutting,
shaping, welding, gluing and protecting
aircraft and spacecraft.
Communication technology is rapidly
improving because computers are
becoming more powerful, while at the same
time more affordable, due to ever
improving semiconductor materials and
other computer materials related
developments. The new technology for
communications with computers, optical
fibers, cellular phones, high definition TV,
FAX machines and digital pagers has
resulted in this era being referred to as the
Information Age.
In Table 2 Roy presents our material
world in terms of when the use of the major
groups of our Family of Materials started,
the amount of use of these materials per
year, what resources are required to make
the materials, major products and the major
properties that cause selection of the
material for those products. Note the
Resources Needed column to see how these
materials will grow in importance. Ceramics
including semiconductors, and composites,
will provide major advanced materials and
the resources arc available to most people
on earth. Currently polymers, including
plastics, are made from petroleum. Plastics
presently require about 3% of the oil
consumed in the USA. However, there are
other hydrocarbon resources for polymers,
including renewable resources such as wood
and other vegetation. Availability of
resources, coupled with the necessary
technology to transform the resources into
engineering materials, has a major influence
on selection of materials in product design.
Advanced materials, many of which use
abundant resources will require continual
break through in materials science,
engineering and technology.

Advanced Materials
Over the next few pages I will provide you
with an overview of advanced materials.
Not all of the materials listed at the
beginning of this module will be covered
here. In later modules of Resources in
Technology, I will provide you with a fuller
discussion of advanced materials within
each of our main groups of the Family of
Materials.
To begin we can contrast “advance
engineering materials” with “traditional
engineering materials.” Engineering
materials include materials that serve
structural or load bearing applications such
as beams, gears, axles and handles. They
contrast with general purpose materials
which may or may not bear loads, do not
posses as good of mechnaical properties and

28

GASOLINE ENGINE
LIGHTWEIGHT COMPONENTS

MATERIALS AND APPLICATIONS
• TITANIUM ALLOYS
(Valves, Retainers, Connecting Rods, Springs)
• RAPIDLY SOLIDIFIED ALUMINUM ALLOYS
(Intake Valves, Connecting Rods, Retainers)
• METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES
(Pistons, Connecting Rods, Retainers)
• CERAMICS, ALUMINIDES
(Valves)
Figure 3: Advanced materials as componentsfor lightweightgasoline engine [Ford Motor]

often cost less. Advanced materials involve
ceramics, polymers, metals, ceramics, and
composites in structures and compositions
which exhibit properties superior to the
traditional materials, often use synthetic or
artificial raw materials and often are
synthesized/processed through
sophisticated, newer techniques. Today,
many of the processes are quite energy
intensive, but that may change. Traditional
materials include the more familiar
polymers (wood, plastics, elastomers),
metals (iron, steel and nonferrous metals
and alloys) ceramics (clay products, glass
and cement) and composites (e.g.
fiberglass, cardboard, plywood and
cement). Advanced ceramics serves to
illustrate advanced materials as defined by
ASM International.
Ceramic materials that exhibit superior
mechanical properties, corrosion/
oxidation resistance, or electrical, optical,

and/or magnetic properties. This term
includes monolithic [single composition]
ceramics as well as particulate-, whisker-,
and fiber-, glass ceramics, and
ceramic-matrix composites. Also known
as engineering, fine, or technical
ceramics. Contrast with traditional
ceramics. (Davis, p.8)
Other names for advanced materials are
space age materials and high performance
materials.

Advanced Ceramic for Engines
Figure 2 shows an advanced ceramic
turbocharger rotor made of Si3N4 (silicon
nitride). The rotor represents a tremendous
breakthrough in materials that is indicative
of advanced materials. Through advanced
processing, stages beginning with making
and blending the ceramic powder, to form
and compact the raw materials into shape,
then sinter (heating to elevated temperature

■ Resources in Technology

below melting) so that engineering or
structural parts emerges with properties
that are remarkable. The Si3N4 rotor has a
degree of toughness comparable to metals,
lighter weight, higher hardness and
temperature/corrosion resistance which
allows it to operate in the very harsh
environments of newer fuel efficiency
engines. Figure 3 illustrates, with a
cross-sectional view, design that uses
advanced materials to improved gasoline
engines which will help meet the stricter
laws for engines by providing better fuel
efficiency and reduced emission of noxious
gases.

Concurrent Engineering: Design
Couples with Materials and
Manufacturing Technology
Superior designed products enabled by
newer approaches to engineering and help
from CAD (computer aided design) will
improve manufacturers competitiveness.
Concurrent engineering uses “design-build
teams” which consist of the design
engineers/technicians, materials engineers
/technologists, and manufacturing
engineers/ technologists. In the past the
design team members worked within their
own group to create a new product design
then tossed the design over the wall to the
manufacturing team who then had to work
out the problems of putting the design into
a finished product. Concurrent engineering

brings together the key players from design
and manufacturing plus other specialists
such as materials engineers to insure that
the required problem-solving get all
necessary input from the beginning, this
design-build team function through final
design, prototype development, testing,
manufacturing and custom follow through.
Figure 4 shows one successfill example of
concurrent engineering. The Dodge Viper
demonstrated that a design-build team
could produce an entire car. This
low-volume-niche vehicle is aimed at a
specific custom market that finds appeal in
the powerfill, sporty roadster of the 1960’s.
A relative small Viper team selected the new
RTM (resin-transfer molded) body panels
that gave the designers the same kind of
design freedom in body shaping that fighter
aircraft designers employ when they use
advanced composites such as graphite
epoxy composites. However, the Viper
used fiberglass RTM panels. RTM allows
relative short cycle times to cast and cure
the glass reinforced plastic while yielding
superior surface finishes demanded by
sports car enthusiasts who are willing to pay
over $50,000 for a two passenger vehicle.

Advanced Metals
For centuries metals have been relied on as
engineering materials. Most designers today
have more knowledge and experience using
metals than newer materials and therefore
feel more confident. But to ensure

continued competitivness with the
advanced composites, ceramics and
polymers, the metals industry keeps
innovating with metals. Titanium and
aluminum lithium alloys are light weight
materials aimed at the transportation
industry, especially for aircraft design.
Nitinol, an alloy of nickel and titanium,
illustrates how “smart materials” can bc
tailored to provide unique properties.
Smart materials are those materials into
which we can build behavior that we can
control at our will. Nitinol is a shape
memory metal. It is possible through heat
treating to train the Nitinol alloy to hold a
shape which it will always remember even if
drastically bent out of shape. As seen in
Figure 5, an eyeglass frame can be wrapped
around ones fingers then will snap back into
it original shape. Through training it is
possible to set the shape memory so that it
will change from a new shape back to its
designed shape with application of a desired
temperature with plus or minus 1°C
accuracy. Nitinol is available in a variety of
forms including wire, sheet, ribbon and
springs. It has high service temperature,
high abrasion and corrosion resistant, and
high tensile strength. The Nitinol alloy
offers a variety of potential uses ranging
from moving robotic fingers by application
in electrical currents, to uses as stress/strain
sensors imbedded in bridges and other
structures.

Biomimetics:
Using Nature’s Synthesis

j
Fig. 1. Memory-metal frame features: A = Flexon bridge, insuring good fit. B = monoblock endpiece for strength and
adjustability. C = Monel eyewire for added strength (see Monel on page 9). D = silicone nose pads for comfort. E =
temples (like spring-hinges without the springs) which hug the wearer and wont bend out of shape. F = Flexibility
removed from temple permits accurate adjustment. G = Memory—when bent or twisted, Flexon remembers its original
shape and immediately returns to it. The frame itself is corrosion resistant to enhance appearance and durability.

Figure 5: Nitinol, a “smart metal,” can be processed to give it a memory of a specific shape. The Flexon
eyeglassesframe is an application of this alloy. Memory-metalfeatures: A=Nitinol Flexon bridge, insuring
good fit. B=monoblock endpiece for strength and adjustability. C=Monel eyewire for added strength.
D=silicone nose padsfor comfort. E=temples which hug the wearer and won’t bend out ofshape.
F=Flexibility permits accurate adjustment. G^MEMORy—when bent or twisted remembers original shape
and immediately returns to it (Note: do not try this with regularframes). Nitinol is also corrosion
resistant. [Marchon!

Advanced Composites
As mentioned earlier, newer materials
processing techniques have made possible
advanced materials. Figure 6 illustrates one
such technique, the Primex™ Pressureless
Metal Infiltration Process used to produce
metal matrix composites. The pressureless,
molten metal infiltration process features
excellent wetting (coverage)of the matrix
alloy. Net- and near- net-shaped parts, small
to large, can have complex shapes at an

30

economical price. The schematic diagram
shows basic processing stages. The mold is
placed in an oven with a nitrogen,
infiltration atmosphere where the alloy is
melted to form the matrix around the
reinforcing fiber or particle fillers of
aluminum oxide. No pressure nor vacuum
is required for the aluminum alloy to
infiltrate the reinforcer. Primex serves as
supports for electronic components.

In the search for advanced materials, some
researchers have turned to the study of how
nature produces its materials. How can a
spider produce fine fibers many times
stronger than steel? How does the mollusks
(sea shelled animals) synthesize their
intricate shells? Some materials scientist see
value in being able to copy (biomimic)
nature. When an animal produces materials
it is with small amounts of energy, it uses
readily available resources, and does not
pollute its environment in the process.
These are valuable attributes for processes
that are in harmony with what Professor
Roy presented as the type of materials
considerations needed for advanced
materials. However, is skeptical of the near
term value of biomimetics.
Biomaterials have been synthesized in a
processes that replicates sea coral including
bone and dental transplant materials. Figure
7 presents a schematic of a biomimetic thin
film material. Thin film coatings offer many
possibilities if they can be manipulated to
achieve unique structures that posses
designed properties and for selective
application to a variety of surfaces. The
ability to orient crystal structure of coatings
offers possibilities for special optical,
electronic, magnetic and mechanical
properties. Tough ceramic coatings provide
increased durability for many products. The
Pacific Northwest Laboratory used
biomimetic synthesis to develop an organic
interface that controlled crystal growth and
formed desired ceramic coatings on
polymer, glass, and metal surfaces of
complex shapes at less expense than current
vapor deposition techniques. The deposited
coating as depicted in Figure 7 was
accomplished at temperatures below 100°C
in a water solution that produced no
hazardous waste.

Math/Science/Technology
Technology requires utilization of math and
science principles for quantitative problem
solving. Because materials technology deals
with solid materials, many we come in
contact with daily, it serves as an excellent
subject to help understand some of the
more abstract concepts in science. In fact
the study of materials science and
technology gives most people a much
better understanding of how our world and
laws of nature work than the study of
chemistry and physics. In the discussion of
biomimetic materials Figure 7 shows the
functional end group which we said was
covalently bonding the coating to the
substrate. Use a materials technology book

■ Resources in Technology

PRIMEX‘m Pressureless Metal Infiltration Process
Mold

Figure 6: The Primex™ represents newer materials processes to produce advanced MMC (metal matrix composite) and provide “near net” or “net shapes”
[Lanxide Corporation)

along with a chemistry book to learn more
about covalent bonds, functional end
groups and the terms interface, and
substrate. Also, determine the other
primary bonds that hold key importance in
holding solids together.

Objectives

Evaluation

• Equate natures means of producing
materials to methods of creating advanced
materials through biomimetic synthesis
• Use imagination to develop new ideas
about materials technology

Write a report, using a wordprocessor if
possible, and make sketches to illustrate the
materials and processes involve in your
advanced materials system. Build a model of
the processing equipment and some sample
model products. Compare you system with
others class members. If time and interest
permits, work in teams to put the systems
together for involved products that use
several of the new advanced materials and
processes. Samples could be levitating
trains, solar powered cars, low cost housing,
and playground exercise equipment. Have
fun!

Challenge

Design Brief
Context
Technological accomplishments enjoyed
today sometimes were forecast in science
fiction of yesterday. Jules Verne’s stories of
travel in the air, under the sea and in space
are such examples. In today’s science fiction
books and movies, you see some
remarkable fiction about materials that
quickly transform from solid state to liquid
or materials that are harder and tougher
than anything known today. These figments
of peoples imagination may be precursors
to new materials technology.

Resources in Technology ■

Read about animals and plants to better
understand how nature makes such
materials as spider webs, wood, bone, shell
and hide. Use your wildest imagination to
develop a system for producing an
advanced material of your choice to meet a
specific need such as the examples given in
this module or from recent news articles.
Remember the ideal material synthesis
should use little energy, require readily
available resources and have little impact on
the environment.

Materials & Equipment
Sketching pad and pencil and/or modelling
materials.

Summary
This module provided an overview of
advanced materials along with a historical
perspective of how technology, in general
and materials technology and materials
science in particular, contribute to human
“progress.” Several examples of advanced
materials provide an insight into how

31

Figure 7: Researchers have yet to unlock the secret of making incredibly strongfibers in a low energy manner like spiders. Biomimetic synthesis has been
accomplished to mimic shellfish. Thin ceramic films (deposited coatings) such as magnetic iron have been deposited on substrates including polyethylene and
polystryene plastics in a very controlled manner. Seen here the ceramic’s molecularfunctional endgroups have formed covalent chemical bonds to the plastic
substrate. [Battelle-Pacific Northwest Laboratory]

materials technology, engineering, and
science will expand in efforts to meet
societal needs. Future modules in RIT will
provided more detailed coverage of
advanced materials on the main groups of
the Family of Materials. Your knowledge of
the materials aspects of technology, coupled
with other key elements, will prepare you to
deal with a rapidly expanding technological
society.

Possible Student Outcomes
• Differentiate between advanced materials
and traditional materials. Cite examples of
each.
• Explain how technology leads to science.
• Describe some factors that promote
development of advanced materials and
advanced materials synthesis and
processing.
• Analyze your environment and news of
technological developments then state
where advanced materials can provide
positive impacts on those conditions.
• Develop a positive attitude toward
solving technological problems through
application of knowledge about materials
technology.

Student Quiz
1. What is the difference between an
advanced material and a traditional

32

material? Give two examples of each, (see
explanation & examples in module').
2. Use your own words to describe how
technology often leads science, (compare
with discussion in module)
3. What conditions cause development of
advanced materials now and into the
fixture? ( Technological progress places
demands on products to posses improved
properties. To meet these needs new materials
must be developed. Future materials needs
will place emphasis on ‘friendly” materials
with low impact on the environment, use
abundant resources and help meet needs of
poorer regions ofthe world)
4. What is a smart material? (materials like
Nitinol that have the ability to bc processed so
they will produce a very specific reaction to
predetermined conditions)
5. How will a knowledge of materials
technology help you solve technological
problems? ( materials have an impact on
numerous problems in society rangingfrom
conservation of resources with lightweight,
fuel efficient vehicles to measurers to insure
that processing, using and disposing of
materials will be done in a way to avoid
harming the environment—knowing about
materials will aid problems solvers whether
they are members ofa technical design-build
team, politicians or the average citizen voting
on technical issues)

References
Davis, J.R., ed. (1992) ASM Materials
Engineering Dictionary. ASM
International.
Jacobs, James A. & Thomas F. Kilduff.
Engineering Materials Technology 2nd
Ed. in revision for 1994, Prentice-Hall,
Inc.
Roy, Rustum. “New Materials:
Fountainhead for New Technologies and
New Science,” paper presented to
National Educators’ Workshop,
NEW: Update 92, Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, Nov. 11-13, 1992.

■ Resources in Technology

RESOURCES IN TECHNOLOGY

Technology and the
Handicapped
W. Fred Hadley

The Americans with Disabilities Act of1992 has mandated that allfacilities employing over twenty-five
people must be accessible to all citizens. Restrooms, entrances and passageways in ballparks such as this must
now incorporate construction features into their designs to make them accessible for the handicapped.
(Vannuci Foto-Services)

eople are walking around today
with feet and legs made from
composite materials, polymers
and metal. These same folks are
also participating in marathons and
bicycling events. Advances in the design,
materials and manufacturing processes used
to produce artificial limbs (prostheses) have
now made their utility and availability more
widespread. Additionally, prosthetics
technology is now able to produce artificial
limbs that in many cases can only be
detected by close examination. Prosthetics
is a branch of surgery dealing with the
replacement of missing parts, especially
limbs, by artificial substitutes.
Many persons with severe physical
disabilities who could not have dreamed of
driving a car or van less than a decade ago
are doing just that today. Computerized
vans have been developed allowing some of
the most physically challenged persons to
drive their own vehicles and to experience
independence. Using devices which require
only a minimum of effort or movement,
these users are able to control all the
operations needed to do their own driving.
Many other physically handicapped
persons whose travel experiences were very
limited because of the difficulties
encountered in getting in and out of
vehicles can today enjoy almost unlimited
travel freedom. During the past decade,
technology employed in developing
adaptive equipment has grown
tremendously. The National Mobility
Equipment Dealers Association (NMEDA),
which includes most of the manufacturers
of adaptive equipment and the dealers who
sell it, says that over 20,000 wheelchair lifts
are sold in the United States every year.
This organization keeps its members
informed of new developments in
technology.
Today, many physically handicapped
persons are doing things once thought to
be impossible, mainly because of advances
in prosthetics technology. Presently, such
devices are not inexpensive, but as the
technology advances and manufacturing
and design methods improve, costs may be
reduced significantly.
In the past, both physical and social
barriers have been hindrances to the full
integration and acceptance of the
handicapped into our society. Sometimes
physical barriers, such as a lack of elevators
or wheelchair ramps, have restricted their
access to certain places otherwise open to
all persons. At other times, handicapped

P

33

people have actually been denied access to
certain places simply because they were
cither physically or mentally impaired. The
social stigma attached to being a
handicapped person’ has only recently
begun to be understood and overcome.

Social/Cultural Impact
Advancements in technology have
improved the teaching of many skills to the
mentally handicapped. Many parents are
simply astounded when they are first told
that their child, in special a class, is learning
to spell simple words or their name, using a
computer.
Technology has now enabled man to
develop materials and equipment to help
bring handicapped persons into the
mainstream of life within our society. Tasks
as simple as ordering a hamburger at
McDonald’s were formerly impossible for

This typical scene ofa cyclist racing down a country
road is anything but typical. Close observation will
reveal that the rider is using two prostheses, one for
each leg below the knee. Using new materials and
manufacturing methods, these lifelike devices and
others like them are opening new horizonsfor the
physically challenged in our society. (Hosmer
Dorrance Corp.)

many non-verbal mentally retarded persons.
Now, using an electronic communications
board that responds verbally to picture
codes selected and entered by its operator,
they can order whatever they choose (with
or without ketchup).
Although artificial arms and legs have
been used for many years, they were
typically very primitive, ill-fitting
implements at best. Early prosthetics, if they
could even be called that, were generally
awkward devices like the wooden peglegs
and ugly hooks usually associated with
barbarians and pirates.
As technology has progressed in the field
of prosthetic appliances, artificial limbs have
become more lifelike and sophisticated. An
artificial limb, such as a hand, may work by
detecting electrical signals from the muscles
in the upper arm. It then converts them to
a current that will open and close
mechanical pincers built into the hand.
Rechargable batteries arc used to operate
these devices.
Initially, more advanced appliances
required the purchaser to wait several weeks
or even months for delivery. This was
because each prosthesis produced had to be
custom fitted to the product’s user. Now
that automation and computer aided design
have been implemented, one can order an
artificial leg or arm and only have to wait a
few days or, in some cases, even a few
hours.
The Hosmer Dorrance Corporation
manufactures a variety of prosthetic
appliances that may bc used to run, cycle or
walk. The company produces special devices
for specific purposes. One individual who
had lost his feet and ankles in combat began
his rehabilitation on a stationary cycle. He is
now competing internationally on a real
bicycle. While his story is exceptional, it is
not unique. Similar stories can bc found in
almost any journal or article covering the
subject.
For example, one man, using a $7,000
artificial foot made of polyesters and acrylic
resins, is able to walk without any sign of a
limp. Additionally, the FlexFoot, as it is
called, allows him to jog, bat, play volleyball
and tackle football. The DuPont Company
has developed an acetal resin which is used
to produce the Seattle Foot. This particular
prosthetic appliance was made famous in a
long running television commercial
featuring Bill Demby, a former high school
basketball player who lost his legs in
wartime, playing in a school playground
game and making a jump shot.

Contemporary Analysis
It would be impossible to list all the ways
that technology has benefited the mentally

and physically handicapped, just as it would
be impossible to show all the ways
technological advances have benefited
people over fifty, or teen-agers who drive.
While many technological developments
have benefited all segments of society, let’s
look briefly at some innovations that have
been developed specifically for handicapped
persons.
Many advances have been made in areas
that once severely limited the activities
and/or communications skills of
communicatively-impaired persons. The
Crestwood Company of Milwaukee was
one of the pioneers in the field of
developing light-technology alternative and
augmentive communication aids. One
problem faced initially by the company was
similar to that faced by all enterprises
engaged in developing devices to aid the
communicatively handicapped who are also
physically impaired. That was: “How can
one who has only minimum ability to move
a single finger or toe communicate if they
are unable to speak at all?” The answer to
that question has provided some unique
communications devices for these people.
Very sensitive switches have been
developed for the severely physically
disabled so that they can operate items such
as televisions, stereos, etc. By exhaling small
puffs of air and directing the airstream
through a straw, users are able to activate
switches that control everything from video
games to telephones.
One product the Crestwood company
developed was a small lightweight
communication device for children and
adults who have difficulty expressing their
needs orally and cannot be understood by
others. The 3.5" x 8.25" unit looks like a
combination typewriter/calculator device
with a two line display panel. Wants, needs,
thoughts and feelings can be typed in and
read out on the display screen, which scrolls
for messages longer than sixteen characters.
A 20IC memory allows the user to
preprogram hundreds of sentences and call
them up whenever they are required.
Canon has developed tape
communicators that operate in a similar
manner, except messages are printed out on
paper. Using Canon’s tape communicator,
nonverbal people can “talk” to other
persons. Another model of this compact
electronic aid, which has five memories
available, also comes with a provision for
sound so that pre-recorded messages may
be used.
Many automatic teller machines (ATM’s)
now incorporate braille features into their
keyboards. Formerly, the convenience of
ATM’s and the many advantages they could

■ Resources in Technology

When appliances such as the ones shown above are used, their versatility can be quite remarkable. Artificial
hands, called prehensors, can be obtained with a variety of options, styles and capabilities. Look closely and
you will see that these models even incorporate a neoprene coating in their pincers to assure a more positive
grip. This type ofapparatus can be enclosed in a lifelike cosmesis made ofa molded, lightweight, durable
polymeric elastomer to make it appear more natural. (Hosmer Dorrance Corp.)

I
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I
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provide were not available to the
sight-impaired segment of our society.
Another common device to aid these
persons is the addition of buzzers or other
sounding devices at crosswalks otherwise
controlled by traffic lights.
The small square symbol that appears at
the beginning of many television programs
indicates that the following program will be
close-captioned for the hearing-impaired.
This means that a great portion of the
program’s script will appear in typed form
at the bottom of the viewing screen as the
program progresses. Many manufacturers
are now producing television sets with a
close-captioning feature already built-in.
For those sets that are not able to receive
close-captioned programs, an adapter can
be added, much like you would add a VCR.
Telecommunications devices for the deaf
(TDD’s) allow deaf persons to use their
personal telephones through a built-in
keyboard, similar to a typewriter. Although
personal TDD’s have been with us for
several years, Ultratec, Inc., of Madison,
Wisconsin, has developed and is now
marketing a device for use with pay
telephones. To illustrate the utility of this
development, imagine a deaf person
arriving at an airport and wanting to call a
business or relatives. The Ultratec pay
phone TDD is now being installed in
airports, government buildings, police
stations, malls, apartment buildings, bus
and train terminals and other public places
affected by the recent passage of the
Americans with Disabilities act.
Everyone in our society needs to know
how to perform simple daily functions such
as moving about the community, dealing
with road traffic and pedestrians, using
public transit systems or going to a
particular place to eat. These are basic
survival skills common to our daily lives.
Unfortunately, many people in our society
lack the basic knowledge and skills to
perform these common, everyday
functions. Teaching this essential
knowledge has been made much more
effective now with the extensive use of
computers in teaching die mentally

This pocket-sized, fold-up telecommunications
device for the deaf (TDD) includes a two line

display, time clock and date functions, and an 8k
memory that allows the user to save and send
memos. It also includes a TDD announcer, which is
a voice that alerts hearing people to calls coming in.

Some models of TDD’s come with a printer port to
connect to an external printer. (Ultratec, Inc.)

35

handicapped. Age-appropriate, talking
computer software has been developed to
address the challenges faced by both
teachers and learners. Using computers and
a multitude of programs developed
specifically for them, the mentally
handicapped are now better able to learn
survival skills, mathematics, reading and a
variety of other subjects. These programs
are usually loaded with relevant graphics as
well as opportunities for the learner to
interact with the program. Such programs
always provide immediate feedback and
reinforcement for the student.
Many of the problems faced by you or I
when required to prepare some written
assignment, or to find some obscure piece
of information are magnified many times
for the blind and other visually-impaired
members of our society. A system
developed by students at Yale University
uses a scanner and a voice synthesizer to
allow full access to all library materials for
the visually-impaired. The students actually
pieced the system together using only
commercially available hardware and
software. Using the system, blind students
are able to ‘read’ whatever information they
need.
A computer program called Dragon
Dictate is on the cutting edge of
technology for those persons who have a
physical disability, but wish to use a word
processor. As the user talks or dictates into
it, the spoken sounds appear on the
computer’s monitor. The program includes
many of the same features we are
accustomed to finding in ordinary word
processing programs, including backing up
(when the user says “Oops!”).
Interestingly, researchers have predicted
that by the turn of the century, we will all
be talking into our word processors rather
than typing.
During any trip to a shopping mall, you
are almost certain to see at least one or two
electric wheelchairs. Many theme parks and
other tourist attractions now provide special
equipment, such as electric scooters and
wheelchairs, for their handicapped visitors.
This is not an entirely altruistic move on
their part, however, as the commercial
aspect of acquiring more visitors is very
appealing.
Stand-up wheelchairs now allow their
users to rise when greeting people and to
reach formerly unreachable places, like the
top shelves of cabinets and bookcases. A
chin controlled joy stick has been used to
control the electric wheelchair of a man
who is totally paralyzed from the neck
down. A truly contemporary wheelchair
that enables the physically handicapped to
36

Ultratec’s Intele-Modem can turn a personal computer into a telecommunications device for the deaf
(TDD). It automatically converts ACSII computer code to Baudot TDD code, so it allows the user to talk
to all different types ofTDD’s and computers. It can easily be connected into ordinary phone lines and
works with standard communications software. (Ultratec, Inc.)

This woman is using a pay phone TDD in an airport. The unit has been designed to work with most public
telephones and is housed in a vandal-proofdrawer. When the TDD is in use, the open drawer allows the
user to converse by typing on the keyboard and reading the display. Hundreds ofthese have already been
installed in airports and public buildings nationwide. (Ultratec, Inc.)

■ Resources in Technology

enjoy a day at the beach has also been
developed. The fat tired “Surf Chair,” as it
is called, looks like a strange dune buggy
and is able to be maneuvered over and
around in soft sand. They even come with
umbrellas for those who want them. Many
cities now use these surf chairs at their
public beaches.
As new materials are developed for use in
one area, they are frequently used to benefit
many other areas of society. Using materials
developed as spin-offs from the space
program, NASA has been able to reduce
the typical weight of leg braces from a
cumbersome fourteen pounds to an easily
manageable one pound.

Using a modified stove installation in her school’s home economics lab, this young lady is able to both reach
and see what she is doing. Because she is seated and thus lower than a standing person, the mirror lets her see
into dishes on the back of the stove. (Courtesy of Fred Hadley)

The use of computers in the classrooms of the mentally handicapped has become very widespread. The
students are enthusiastic about the equipment aregenerally easily motivated to use whatever programs a
teacher may choose to present. This type ofstudent may learn survival skills, language, mathematics or any
ofseveral other subjects much more readily on a computer than by traditional means. (Courtesy ofFred
Hadley)

This lightweight prosthesis, the Quantum Foot by
Hosmer Dorrance Corporation, very nearly
simulates movement on a naturalfoot and takes
the thinking out ofwalking for its user. It allows a
wide range of motions including walking,
jumping, running, dancing and just standing
still. Various internal components allow for
differences in patient weight, shoe size and activity
level. (Hosmer Dorrance Corp.)

Objectives

Design Brief
Context
Physically handicapped persons want to be
as independent as possible. Depending on
others is necessary at times, but many tasks
can be accomplished independently by the
physically challenged when given the proper
equipment or training.

Objectives
• Investigate typical barriers found in a
contemporary home that would prevent the
handicapped from being independent
• List possible solutions or corrective
actions to these barriers
• Design a barrier-free home environment.
Include special appliances, fixtures, etc.
• Design and build an adaptive device

Challenge

• Make a list of barriers for the
handicapped that still exist in your
community.
• Make a similar list for your school
(example: the library is on the second floor
and there is no elevator, etc.).
• Design solutions or corrective actions for
the barriers encountered.
• Prepare and present a report listing the
barriers and your solutions to the proper
authorities.

Challenge
Working in teams of two or three,
investigate and list physical barriers found in
your school and community. After the
teams have completed their assignments,
prepare a report compiling the information
and present it to the proper authorities.

Evaluation

Working in teams of two, design and build
a device that would allow a wheelchair
bound person to successfully retrieve
variously shaped items (i.e. plates, cans,
glasses, etc.) from a high shelf.

Ask a trained professional (i.e., special
education teacher, physical therapist, etc.)
or a handicapped adult to examine your
report and evaluate its findings. Refine your
report after this feedback.

Evaluation

M/S/T Interface

Borrow a wheelchair from your special
education department and test your class’s
different designs. For a more realistic test,
do not let die designers or builders do the
testing on their own devices. Have
someone from another team test your
device after its operation has been
explained. If any of your class’s designs
appear to be both practical and successful,
try to have a special education teacher or
one of their students critique your efforts.

Design Brief
Context
For many years various groups have fought
for the rights of handicapped individuals.
One of their primary concerns has been
that many community facilities and services
are not available for the handicapped
because of physical barriers. A very
common example of a correction that has
been made in that regard is the
construction of wheelchair ramps at many
crosswalks. Many other provisions have
been made in our society to accommodate
the needs of the handicapped, but others
must still bc done. The recent passage of
the Americans with Disabilities Act should
be a great help in moving this process
along.

38

Much of the technology developed to aid
the handicapped involves the use of
electricity. Some of the developments
require only very minute quantities of
electricity, such as the electronic sensors
used to power an artificial hand or arm.
Others may require the use of electricity in
more commonly drought of ways, such as
powering computers, operating circuits in a
van or moving wheelchairs.
However electricity is employed,
engineers must be able to calculate the
required voltages, resistances encountered
and the amperes involved. A common
formula, known to every lab student of
electricity, is Ohm’s Law. This is a
mathematical formula that expresses the
relationship between the electromotive
force, electric current and resistance in a
circuit.

■4
In the formula, R equals the resistance, I
equals the amperes and E equals the
voltage. When any two of the elements are
known, the third is easily calculated.
Example:

What is the resistance in a certain circuit
in a van that is being customized for use
by a handicapped person if the voltage
supplied is 12 volts and the circuit
requires 3 amperes to operate?

r

r=e_1
12 volts
3 amperes

R= 4 ohms

Engineers use Ohm’s Law to determine
the efficiency of electrical circuits. By
varying the components placed within a
circuit, such as resistors, capacitors and
the wiring, they can affect the flow of
current within it.

Summary
Some very noteworthy technological
advances have been made in recent years to
improve the quality of life for the physically
and mentally handicapped members of our
society. The challenges faced by these
individuals are no less significant, but with
the aid of computers, new manufacturing
methods and materials and other
breakthroughs, their lives may bc made
easier.

Student Quiz
1. What is a prosthesis?
2. Briefly describe technology’s role in
prosthetics today.
3. List some physical barriers handicapped
persons might encounter in your school.
4. What are some improvements you have
noted in your community specifically
designed to make certain places more
handicapped accessible?
5. Define TDD.
6. How may an electronic voice
communications board for the handicapped
be used?
7. How arc computers used with
mentally handicapped students? Are they
employed in your school system’s
program for them? Research this and find
out how.
8. What do you think the 1992
Americans with Disabilities Act will mean
for the handicapped segment of our
population?
9. What is the function of a TDD?
10. Do you think there is any social stigma
attached to being handicapped in your
community? Your school? Why? What can
you personally do about it?

Possible Student Outcomes
• Describe the impact of technology on
improving devices for the handicapped.
• Identify five recent developments in
technology that have helped our
handicapped population.
• Recognize barriers encountered by the
handicapped within your community.
• Design and develop a practical aid to be
used by the handicapped.

■ Resources in Technology

References
Blackman, Ann. “Machines That Work
Miracles,” Time. February 19, 1991, pp.
70-71.
“Disabled now can enjoy a better day at the
beach,” The Ledger-Star. August 10,
1992, p. B3, col. 1.
Dutton, Gail. “Breaking Communications
Barriers,” Compute. September 1991, pp.
29-31.
Jacobs, James A. and Thomas F. Kilduff.
(1985) Engineering Materials
Technology, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Van, Joy. “Technology allow disabled to
run, cycle,” The Ledger-Star. August 10,
1992. p. A8, cols. 1-2.

Acknowledgments
A special thank you to Pam Frasier of
Ultratec in Madison, Wisconsin, and Nancy
McClellan of Hosmer Dorrance in
Campbell, California, for providing most of
the photographs and information for this
article.

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Resources in Technology Collection
Volumes 1-10

resources in technology

A CASHLESS SOCIETY?

The Plastic Revolution
John M. Ritz

Photo 1. Gold cards provide a “status”for their carriers. They offer higher credit limits and added
privileges to their holders. Credit: Visa U.S.A. Inc.

40

roduct purchases were not
always as convenient as we find
them today. In industrialized
societies, we may use cash,
checks or credit cards to purchase such
things as concert tickets, clothing, gasoline
or meals. In days gone by, purchases were
often made differently. Years ago families
could establish a line of credit with a local
merchant, make purchases and pay toward
their accumulated bill on a monthly basis.
This was a common practice for established
families in general merchandise stores. As
our economy developed, single purpose
specialized stores came into being. A
customer, after having his or her credit
checked, could have a retailer establish a
line of credit for their family. The family
would then make its purchases and pay for
these through monthly installments. What
merchants found was that with a line of
credit, a family would increase their overall
amount of purchases. The practice of
allowing credit was also used by furniture
and department stores. Because of a slower
paced economy and lower family incomes,
usually families did not earn enough money
to purchase high priced items, such as
furniture, with one payment. These types of
products were bought and paid for over
time. Along with the development of the
department store, a practice of establishing
a centrally located business office within the
store followed. With this centralization,
other new forms of technology were
developed to enable clerks to process
charged purchases. Clips on cables were run
from merchandise departments to the
business office allowing clerks to pull a wire
on a pulley cable system and send purchase
documents to the bookkeepers. This
practice was improved through the use of
pneumatic tubes, much like those used for
drive-through banking today. After
purchases, on a monthly basis, the credit
office of the business would mail a bill to
the customer. Today cash registers are
networked with computers to enable the
billing to take place centrally and
automatically.
To make charge purchases easier for
customers and store clerks, actual credit
cards began to appear in the 1920s. These
early cards were metal plates similar to
military dog tags and were issued by retail
stores and gasoline companies. Purchases
could be made with the card at various
retail outlets. At that time the population
had become mobile with the vast adoption
of the automobile. Companies also initiated

P

■ Resources in Technology

a purchasing practice known as revolving
credit. With a revolving line of credit, a
customer could continue to purchase to a
maximum amount, if he or she paid toward
that amount each month. However, it
should be noted that there was
accumulated interest placed on the unpaid
amount of the debt. This was an additional
means of profit-making for the business.
Until the 1950s, retail store specific
charge cards, e.g. Scars, Montgomery Ward
and gasoline cards, were the only credit
cards available to the public. However,
some hotels and airlines began offering
cards to companies for their employees’
business travel. Following these advances,
the modern credit card had its birth during
the 1950s.
It is said that Frank McNamara, a New
York businessman, came upon the idea of
the modern credit card when he was dining
and discovered he had forgotten to bring
money to pay for his meal. He and a
partner negotiated with a number of
restaurants in New York City to accept a
card that they produced from pressed
paper. Card holders were charged three
dollars a year for bill processing and the
card company would reimburse the
restaurant 90% of the total sale, thus
making a 10% profit on each use.
McNamara’s card became known as the
Diners Club card (now a subsidiary of
Citicorp Bank). His vision has led to the
plastic card revolution which is upon us
today and his development may some day
lead to a cashless society where paper and
coin money arc no longer used.
Taking the lead from the success of
Diners Club, a number of banks began to
explore the possibility of issuing bank credit
cards and having businesses accept these for
charged purchases. About 200 banks issued
cards during the 1950s, but there were no
annual fees or interest charges associated
with the cards at that time. Consequently,
most early ventures with bank credit cards
failed. However, a San Francisco bank,
Bank of America, was successful in earning
money from the 10% it withheld from the
retail stores to cover costs of transactions
and their profit. This first successful credit
card was known as BankAmericard. With its
success, the bank began to form alliances or
franchises with other banks. That is, bank
“X” in Chicago could offer its customers a
BankAmericard. It would get a portion of
the 10% withheld from the retailer plus the
Bank of America would also get a share of
the 10%. With the success of this venture,
other charges such as an annual fee of $15,
interest charges, a predetermined line of
credit, and eventually cash advances, were
tied to the card.

Resources in Technology ■

With BankAmericard’s success came
competition from other banks for a share of
the profits. Wells Fargo Bank, along with
others, set up a credit card network known
as Master Charge. This competition, along
with impressive marketing campaigns,
brought America into a era of “charge it”
purchasing.
Consequently, these two companies,
BankAmericard and Master Charge, began
the mass distribution of credit cards. Simply
stated, credit cards became available to
most individuals. Research showed that
with a line of credit, people would make
added purchases. The card companies knew
people did not have the funds to pay for the
purchases at the end of the month, so they
could profit from high interest charges.
During the early 1980s, prime interest rates
climbed to 20 percent, consequently the
rates for credits cards edged up from 18 to
22 percent (Shepherdson, 1991, p. 131 ).
However, people paid these charges along
with an annual fee without much
complaint, because the advanced credit was
so easy to obtain.

Contemporary Analysis
During the 1970s the BankAmericard and
Master Charge Corporations, just like so
many other companies, sought a new image
and niche in the world market economy.
Since some banks did not like advertising
for other banks, e.g. Bank America, the
larger card companies saw that changing
the names of their cards would have greater
appeal to individual banks that wanted to
become part of the international credit
network. As a result, BankAmericard
renamed it card to VISA and Master
Charge became MasterCard. Discover card,
a Sears, Roebuck and Company subsidiary,
also entered the market in 1986. American
Express, the other major credit card, had
been on the market since 1958.
Besides providing up front credit and
making substantial profits for themselves
and their member banks, the four major
credit card companies (VISA, MasterCard,
American Express and Discover) had to find

competitive marketing strategies to take
business away from their competition, since
most people possessed more than one
company’s card. Various types of ventures
appeared. One of these was the “gold card”
which provided a certain status for its
carriers. A gold card usually offered a
higher credit limit and sometimes lower
interest rates, however the holder must have
proven that he or she had an excellent
credit rating. Glamour and prestige were
also associated with holders of this card.
Some companies offered special privileges
to gold card holders including emergency
card replacement services; emergency travel
services such as providing assistance with
transportation, lodging and car rental;
automatic travel accident insurance;
purchase security (if a purchase is lost,
broken or stolen, it will be replaced) and
extended protection; auto rental damage
insurance; check cashing privileges; and
emergency assistance such as medical
assistance, transportation assistance, lost
luggage assistance, legal referrals and
translation services. With a credit card and
all of these services, how could a customer
go wrong? Credit cards were convenient
and provided added values to their holders.
In the U.S. alone, there were 138 million
VISA cards and 90 million MasterCards in
circulation in 1991 (Shepherdson, 1991, p.
132). That’s not bad considering that the
U.S. population is approximately 250
million, including children. It is also
estimated that the average American family
is $2,500 in credit card debt. In reality,
Americans are spending money they do not
have!
Along with the services provided by
credit card companies, the technologies that
allow their use possible have also
progressed. In today’s market consumers
are finding various options in the levels of
technological sophistication that are being
put into various forms of cards. These
include debit cards, token cards (various
cardboard and plastic cards that can be used
for consumer services), universal cards and
the newest technology, smart cards. The

41

token cards have replaced metal tokens
previously purchased for gaining access to a
variety of machines from arcade games to
mass transit systems.

Debit Cards
Credit cards are based on the premise that a
person can make a purchase with no money
on hand. The American economy is
currently operating on this approach to
debt. We can buy without the funds to
back-up our purchases. Some feel this is bad
economics. In most countries throughout
the world, people need money to make
purchases. The “debit card” works on this
principle. Transactions using this form of
card take money from your bank account.
For example, a person can use an Exxon
credit card with a debit feature to purchase
gasoline. When the card is used, the
amount of the purchase is automatically
deducted from your checking account.
Other gasoline companies have this debit
capability which enable the customer to pay
the cash price for the gasoline instead of the
charge or marked-up price.
In addition to using the cards for this
type of purchase, debit cards can also be
used in ATMs (automatic teller machines)
at banks and other locations convenient to
customers. For a withdrawal fee (ranging
between $.25 and $1.00), you can use the
debit card to obtain cash for other
purchases.

Token Cards
In a plastic or cardboard format, these
specialty cards, equipped with a magnet
strip, are coming into wide use throughout
the world. Token cards can be purchased
from machines or tellers to gain services
such as riding on mass transit systems,
making telephone calls, playing video
arcade machines, making photocopies,
purchasing cafeteria meals, etc. These
specialty token cards are a form of debit
card. The purchaser buys the card and an
amount of credit and this value is registered
on the magnetic tape. Purchases can be
made for the value of the card, e.g. a mass
transit ride, or its value may be reduced by
the cost of the purchase. In addition, the
value of the token card can be increased by
making payment to a teller or machine that
will increase the value on the magnetic
strip.
The projected use of specialty token
cards should increase as companies and
municipalities attempt to save money by
eliminating tellers/controllers and
providing for the safety of citizens. By using
specialty token cards, consumers are not
required to carry cash, consequently
personal thefts should decrease. Token
cards have gained wide acceptance for use
with mass transit travel and telephone
operation overseas.

42

Photo 3. When used, a debit card electronically removesfundsfrom the
user’s account. Credit: Visa U.S.A. Inc.

Photo 4. Many banking cards have debitfeatures allowing customers to secure cash at convenient locations
throughout their native countries. Credit: Visa U.S.A. Inc.

_____________

Universal Cards
A universal card derives its name because it
has multiple uses. One such card is the
AT&T Universal Card. This card can be
inserted into special telephones and used to
make local or long distance calls. It can also
provide access to specialty telephones for
the hearing-impaired or be used to receive
discounts on long distance call. This card
also provides assistance in making
connections with U.S. operators when used
in foreign countries. Recently AT&T
introduced a FAX mail box system that can
be accessed with their universal card. In
addition to the telephone access, these cardss
also serve as VISA or MasterCard cards.

Smart Cards
The newest form of technological cards are
known as smart cards. They are known as
smart cards because a micro-chip is
embedded into the body of the card. These
cards arc manufactured the same size as a
plastic credit card but have additional
features to the customary magnetic strip
credit card. The smart card can supply the
user with a variety of services such as the
magnetic strip and token cards, but it can
provide more sophisticated functions. With
the encoded computer chip, additional
security information can be provided and
many more applications programmed onto
the card. In addition, their surfaces can be
more decorative for advertising since
embossed letter and numbers are not
required. Since some smart cards were
designed to bc thrown away after use, many
advertisers are contracting with smart card
manufacturers to print their advertising on
the surface of the card to alert the public to
consumer products such as movies and
perfumes. Although this was advertising
that customarily would appear on billboards;
or magazines, it now is appearing on smart
cards. People are also beginning to save and
collect the cards, similarly to collecting
sports cards.
Smart cards have not been widely
adapted in North America because of our
current purchasing beliefs/philosophy.
Americans like to purchase on credit, i. e.
making purchases without the funds for the
transaction. Countries in which smart card
use is more wide spread operate from a
debit philosophy. They have the funds in
their accounts to have them electronically
withdrawn to immediately cover their
purchases. This is similar to having drafts
from your checking account to make
monthly mortgage, life insurance or
automobile payments. You can get a bank
statement showing that funds have been
transferred without the added bother of

Resources in Technology ■

writing a monthly check. With a smart card,
security is increased and customers can
make many of their purchases without
receiving bills or writing checks which they
must pay to have printed.
The uses of smart card purchases are
limitless. Currently in over forty countries
worldwide, they are used for telephone
calling. Insert your smart card, call your
number and the cost of the call can be
electronically deducted from the
pre-programmed value of the card or
electronically transferred to your monthly
account that you have established with the
telephone company. What this means for
the customer is the convenience of not
having to have coin money, and the
company also benefits from reduced
maintenance and operating costs. The
telephone companies are not required to
hire people to empty the phones of their
coinage or losing revenues due to vandals
breaking into the phones to steal the coins
and damage the phones themselves.
Controlled access to telephones can also
bc gained in hotels, hospitals, rental
cottages, and cruise ship and freighters. By
issuing a smart card, these calls can be
pre-purchased from a central office at these
facilities. The smart cards can be inserted in
special telephones and their value deducted
as calls are completed. In this way, private
access can be guaranteed and confusing bills
eliminated.
Smart cards arc also being introduced
successfully for other applications. Paris,
France, has just adopted the wide scale use
of smart cards to control automobile
parking. Again, the same benefits as with
their use with telephones are evident—
reduced cost, maintenance and theft.
Smart cards arc also being used to gain
access to movie theaters and to view movies
in motel/hotel rooms. By purchasing a
smart card and having funds encoded
within its memory, a viewer can go to the
theater, present his/her card and have it
placed in a card reader. Tickets can be
issued and the funds automatically
deducted from the value entered in the
card. The same could be done in a motel
room. Put your smart card into the reader
and access is gained to the movie channel
you desire. For children, information could
be programmed onto the card so they
could not be admitted to movies with R
ratings.
Research and market testing of smart
cards in North America continues.
Experiments have been conducted with
sport franchises to use smart cards for
season ticket holders. The cards have been
used to admit spectators to baseball and

basketball games, allow them access to
special elevators and private boxes and
permits them to make concession
purchases. Currently, wide acceptance of
smart cards in this area has not materialized.
However, the smart card is gaining
increased acceptance as a form of product
merchandising through frequent shopper
programs. In a joint venture between
Advanced Promotion Technologies of
Deerfield Beach, Florida, Schlumberger
Technologies (world’s largest manufacturer
of smart cards with a U.S. office in
Chesapeake, Virginia), and Dahl’s grocery
chain of Des Moines, Iowa, a program
known as the Vision Value Club was
launched in 1987. This joint venture
provides us with a possible glance of the
supermarket of the future.
Advanced Promotion Technologies has
equipped Dahl’s with a variety of product
promotional technologies. For example,
when a customer enters the store, members
and potential members of their Vision
Value Club can view videos and collect
printed promotional materials on gifts that
they may claim by accumulating shopper
purchase points. Each dollar spent in the
store awards a club member 20 shopping
points. Selected brand purchases add special
bonus points to the shopper’s total.
Points are awarded at the check-out
counter on the Vision Systems platform
terminal and accumulated on the customers
smart card. As the purchases are recorded
by a laser check-out scanner, the customer
can view the cost of their purchases and
view purchase and bonus points on a color
touch-screen monitor. Electronic coupons
can also be subtracted from the purchases
immediately. As a result, no more collecting
coupons and redeeming these on your next
shopping trip. When the tallying of your
purchases are complete, you can pay cash,
use an electronic check where the customer
types in their PIN number (personal
identification number) and in ten seconds
these funds are electronically transferred
from your checking account to the store’s
account, or use a Vision VISA card to have
your purchases credited to your monthly
VISA bill. The total points earned on the
shopping trip are also credited to your
smart card. Points can be redeemed for
valuable gifts just like “green stamp”
programs operated in the past. Vision Value
programs of this nature make shopping
more friendly to customers, conveniently
market products to the customers via bonus
points, and save time at the check out, since
personal identification and credit data

43

are already available and encoded on the
smart card.
This smart card technology also permits
target marketing to the customer since
records of recently purchased product
groups can be recorded in the smart card’s
memory. If an individual buys specific
products and the store chain wants to push
another brand, bonus points or coupons
can be generated to influence the
customer’s purchases. Also, if the customer
purchases a lot of a particular product
group, e.g. baby products, the smart card
can key this information to the main
computing system and it will introduce the
customer to new products which may
attract additional purchases. Through the
use of smart card shopping, value and
convenience can be brought directly to the
customer, reducing paper advertisement
printing and direct marketing campaigns by
manufacturers.
Uses and the future introduction of
smart card technologies are limitless. Short
term future uses are projected in the area of
vending machines purchases. Smart cards
require no moving parts, consequently they
will not jam machines as coins often do.
One and two dollar token smart cards will
be purchasable via machines. Users will
then use these cards at later dates to make
their purchases from the vending machines.
Future uses of smart card technology are
probably within the visions of each of the
readers of this article.

Social-Cultural Impacts
The information provided has painted a
rosy picture for the credit card industry. In
addition to providing convenience to
shoppers and increasing purchases for
merchants, problems also have arisen from
the misuse of these small plastic cards.
During the mid-1960s, to get the credit
card into the hands of the public,
companies started the mass distribution of
cards through the mail. They had hoped
that by getting the cards to millions of
people, increased credit purchases would
follow. People did not have to fill out a
form to request the cards; they just received
them in the mail. Cards were issued to the
dead and to babies. It was also reported
that a dog became a preferred credit
customer (Shepherdson, 1991, p. 128). In
addition, identification was not required to
use the cards. Found and stolen cards were
consequently sold and fraudulent purchases
resulted. Also at this time, the name of the
person to whom the card was issued was
held liable for the charges, even if they
never received the card.

44

Photo 5. Universal and calling cards are convenientfor travelers to make business and personal phone calls
without the use ofcoins. Credit: AT&T.

To correct these early injustices,
Congress enacted PL 91 508 in 1970,
prohibiting credit card companies from
issuing cards to people not requesting
them. This law also eliminated cardholder
liability from purchases made on lost or
stolen cards. Another law, passed in 1974,
the Fair Credit Billing Act, allowed
cardholders to stop payment on credit card
purchases for unsatisfactory merchandise or
on bills that were in error. This law was
designed to prevent bad credit ratings form
being placed against cardholders who had
card billings problems (Shepherdson, 1991,
p. 130).
Again in 1975 the Federal Government
had to intervene between the consumer and
the credit card industry. At that time many
women who applied for cards were rejected
even if they were credit worthy. The Equal
Credit Opportunity Act stopped practices
of discrimination against the issuance of
cards because of sex, race, color, religion,
national origin, age or reliance on public
assistance. This law required an explanation
for denial of a card and provided a means of
appeal for die applicant denied credit
(Shepherdson, 1991, p. 130).
In addition to the enactment of laws,
another social cultural issue with credit
cards is marketing practices. Marketing has
become big business in the credit card
industry. As expressed through
advertisements for the 1992 Summer
Olympic Games, VISA stated that the
hotels, restaurants and shops in Spain
would not accept American Express in an
attempt to have travelers leave their
American Express cards at home. VISA also
advertised that they would contribute a
percentage of purchases made with their
card to the U.S. Olympic Team’s training
program. VISA has attempted to get
customers to use their card for the good of
our country.

In addition, evening TV programming
and magazines also have promoted the use
of credit cards. They advertise how
customers can use cards world-wide in
millions of businesses, how they can be
used to replace broken or lost merchandise,
etc. Now cards can be ordered that assist us
in expressing our personal interests or
member associations. Consumers can order
cards from banks associated with
university’s alumni associations including a
picture of the university printed on the
card, or from airlines who credit additional
frequent flyer points for the added use of
your card. There are also cards that can be
obtained which display logos of professional
or hobby associations. Through marketing
campaigns of this nature, the cardholder’s
use of a particular card will likely proliferate.
This means increased revenue for one card
company over another.
Other benefits are being promoted by
credit card issuers. For example, Discover
card offers a one percent return on
purchases to the cardholder. General
Motors has just begun offering a credit card
through MasterCard where five percent of
your purchases are credited toward the
down payment on a new automobile.
What will be the next step in marketing
campaigns for the big four of credit card
banking? Will their marketing campaigns
convince us to extend our credit? Will more
people live a lifestyle that requires them to
be “maxed out” in regard to credit or will
our purchasing philosophies swing toward a
debit mind set, as proposed by the
developers of smart card technology? Are
consumers developing technophobia
toward credit card use and are they
destroying cards as they pay off their
balances?
Today theft and fraudulent charging have
become our most recent credit rating

■ Resources in Technology

scares. You may personally know of
someone that has been a victim of credit
card fraud. Many stores who continue to
use the old technology carbon copy
invoicing system now ask customers if they
want the carbon paper form the invoice
receipt so they may destroy it. Criminals
have taken these discarded carbons and
stolen numbers to make purchases via
telephone or have had new cards issued and
have used your signature copy for
identification and forgery. Today the
information on the magnetic strips of stolen
cards are being altered not to correspond to
the embossed name and numbers on the
fronts of card. Clerks are not verifying the
information, so fraudulent purchases
continue. Will the smart card be able to
reduce fraud and transform us into a
cashless society?

Math/Science/Technology Interface
What is the cost of having credit? Suppose
you have a part-time job after school and
you earn $4.25/hour, the U.S. minimum
wage limit. You are a hard worker and are
respected for your efforts by your parents.
A local electronic entertainment merchant
has a sale on a home entertainment system.
You convince your parents to allow you to
make the purchase on your mother’s local
bank VISA card. The system costs $729.54
after taxes.
If you can only afford to pay $75 a
month toward the system, with current
1.32% monthly compounded interest rates,
how long will it take you to purchase the
system and how much will you have to pay
in interest charges over the entire purchase?
Photo 6. A customer views shopper points she is
collecting through her purchases ofspecial brand
products. Her cumulative points are being recorded
on her smart card inserted into the Vision Value
System. Credit: Advanced Promotion Technologies.

Design Brief
Context
The carrying of cash by young school age
children can lead to awkward situations.
The cash may bc stolen or the child may
make purchases with the money that
parents do not approve. However, funds
are still required so students can purchase
lunch and other school related supplies and
fees.

Summary
Plastic card technology is a norm for
citizens of developed societies. Cards arc
convenient for making purchases, can
eliminate the need of coin money and can
bc programmed through smart card
technologies to gain assess to many other
forms of technology. However, credit and
credit cards can be risky for people who use
them loosely and without thought. Just like
money, if not guarded, they can be stolen
and used for the benefit of others.

Challenge
With the developments in debit and smart
card technologies, can an alternative means
bc developed to limit access to a child’s
money and at the same time provide funds
when and where needed? Design a
mock-up and promotional program for a
multi-use smart or debit card to bc used by
young school aged children.

Objectives
1. Apply the technological method
2. Apply graphic illustration techniques
3. Produce a mock-up
4. Develop a promotional plan
5. Assess the impact of credit card
technology.

Resources
School library, card manufacturers/vendors
and information from this Resources in
Technology article.

Materials and Equipment
Mat board, transfer letters, colored markers
or zip-strip, utility knives, layout materials,
video equipment, or other appropriate
technology.

Evaluation
1. Consideration should to be given to the
multiple uses of the card.
2. A promotional plan needs to be designed
to explain the use of the card.
3. The mock-up should employ the
elements of good design.

Possible Student Outcomes
1. Describe the development of the credit
card.
2. Distinguish between debit, token,
universal and smart cards.
3. Describe various social/cultural
impacts resulting from credit card use.
4. Calculate interest charges.
5. Construct mock-ups of technological
products.

Student Quiz
1. Early credit cards were referred to as

a. Smart cards
b. Rubber checks
c. Charge plates

d. Dog tags
2. The first credit card was called_____ .
a. Sears charge card
b. American Express
c. BankAmericard
d. Diners Club

3. What is the current name for
BankAmericard? VISA.
4. What is the current name for Master
Charge? MasterCard.
5-8. What are the names of the big four
credit cards? VISA, MasterCard,
American Express, and Discover.
9. Which type of card provides the most
status for the carrier? Gold Card
10. A gasoline card that deducts funds
electronically from you bank account when
you use it is referred to as what type of
credit card?
a. Debit card
b. Token card
c. Universal card
11. A card that allows you access to a mass
transit systems is what type of card?
a. Debit card
b. Token card
c. Universal card
12. A card that can be used in a telephone
and also used to buy food at a restaurant?
a. Debit card
b. Token card
c. Universal card

45

13. What is manufactured into the body of
a smart card? A micro processor or chip.
14. In which market has the smart card
gained the most use? Telephone.
15. In what area are smart cards gaining
acceptance in the U.S.? Product promotion
or merchandising.

References
Advanced Promotion Technologies (1990,
April). Electronic Marketing System
Expanded (press release).
Shepherdson, N. (1991, November).
Credit Card America. American
Heritage, 11,125-132.
Schlumberger Technologies ( 1990,
May/June). Smart Card
Communication, 5, 1-8.

Photo 7. Some credit card companies now insure purchasesfrom damage or theft if purchased with their
cards. Credit: AT&T.

RESOURCES IN TECHNOLOGY

Our Material World
Martha B. Jacobs

Figure 1
You can see many examples of our material world in this picture at
Disney World. The Mickey Mouse hot air balloon flying over the
Contemporary Hotel is made ofpolymers. The hotel is made of concrete,
a ceramic. Several metals such as steel, aluminum and coppergo into
making the hotel.

Resources in Technology ■

e live in a world of
materials. All the
things you see around
you are materials. Stop for a
minute! Look around you and
name some of the materials you
see. Do you see a pencil? What
material is it made of? Wood or
plastic? Do you see a book? It is
made of paper. What other
things do you see and what
materials do you think were used
to make them? Look at the
picture in Figure 1. It is full of a
variety of materials that we will
discuss.
Everyday, we come in contact
with materials. We should be
informed about them so we
think about what materials we
want in things we buy. As
citizens we should take care and
use our natural resource wisely
with concern for the
environment. Recycling is one
such concern.
Materials are stuff whose
properties make them useful for
making things such as pencils
and books. Materials are made
of matter. Matter comes in three
basic forms: solids, liquids, and
gases. We usually use materials in
the solid form of matter. In
Figure 1 we see a Mickey Mouse
balloon which is made of a solid
material and filled with a gas
which makes it float. Below the
Mickey balloon we can see water
which is a liquid and many other
solid materials such as the hotel
and Cinderella’s castle which are
probably made of concrete.
Where do all these materials
come from and what causes one
material to be different from
another?

W

47

Table 1

FAMILY OF MATERIALS

Group

Subgroup

Examples

Metals and Alloys

Ferrous

Iron
Steel
Cast Iron

Ceramics

Polymers

Composites

Nonferrous

Aluminum
Tin
Zinc
Copper
Gold

Crystalline
compounds

Porcelain
Pottery Brick
Abrasives

Glass

Glassware

Manmade

Plastics
Elastomers
Adhesives
Paper

Natural

Wood
Rubber

Animal

Bone
Skin

Wood based

Plywood
Laminated timber

Plastic based

Fiber glass
Graphite epoxy

Concrete

Reinforced concrete
Asphalt concrete

Adapted from Family of Materials Table in Engineering Materials Technology, by James A. Jacobs and
Thomas F. Kilduff, Prentice Hall Inc., 1985.

Table 1
Family ofMaterials with its main groups ofMetals, Ceramics,
Polymers and Composites.

48

We all know that trees are
made of wood, rain comes from
clouds, cotton comes from
plants, and wool grows on
sheep. But where do we get
tennis balls? Yes, we buy them
from the store, but how are they
made and what materials are
used?
Family of Materials

First, we must realize that there
is a “Family of Materials” and
materials have properties.
Properties of an orange would
be: orange in color, round,
smooth, soft, firm and maybe
bumpy. Properties of materials
would be strong or weak, tough
or fragile, transparent or opaque,
hard or soft, lightweight or
heavy. Some are soft and stretch
or bend like Silly Putty. Others
are hard but break if bent like
glass or a pencil.
STOP! How many properties of

a tennis ball you can name? You
might list them as: round,
yellow, fuzzy, bouncy, white
stripe, soft, and spongy. Does
the material that it is made of
serve its purpose? Yes, if used on
a clear day; but if it rains, the
answer would be no because the
polymer fuzz on the ball gets
soggy and the ball does not
bounce properly.

Think about the “Family of
Material.” It is like people who
live in your house. Those people
would make up your family. A
family of materials would be the
things that belong in that house.
Family members for the Family
of Materials are the main groups:
metals (metals and alloys),
ceramics, polymers, composites.
■ Resources in Technology

Figure 2
A broken pencil magnified 20
times. Note the graphite lead
within the wood.

Figure 3
The same broken pencil is seen in
Figure 2 but magnified 200
times.

Table 1 shows the main family
groups, their subgroups, and
some examples of materials
within each group.

Graphite, one form of carbon,
is soft, slippery, and spreadable.
These properties make it good
for pencil lead and also to keep
locks, door hinges, and other
parts moving. Carbon in another
form is diamond which is the
hardest natural material on
earth. Graphite fits into the
polymers group. Diamond is a
ceramic.

Polymers

See the Polymer group in Table
1. Do you know about any of
those polymers? Figure (2) is a
picture of a broken pencil taken
with a powerful microscope. The
pencil is made of wood, a
polymer, and is seen 20 times
larger than its normal size. A real
pencil this size would be over
five inches wide. The big hole in
the upper left hand corner of the
Figure 2 shows where the pencil
lead was before it broke. While
we usually call it the pencil lead,
it is actually graphite; the wood
which holds the graphite is from
a cedar tree. Lead, a metal, is a
very poisonous material; so it
would be unsafe to use in pencils.
Resources in Technology ■

Figure 4
A composite tennis racquet made
ofgraphite fibers in an epoxy
plastic matrix. It has a foam
rubber handle and leathergrip.
All of these materials are from the
polymergroup.

wood was part of a living tree,
these cells were filled with the
tree sap that provided food for
the tree to live and grow. Once
the tree was cut the sap left the
tree making the wood much
lighter in weight.
STOP! How many different
woods can you name? What are
those woods used to make?

Composites

STOP! How many very hard

materials can you name? How
many softer materials can you
name? Are they polymers?

Figure 3 is another picture of the
pencil; the wood part is seen 200
times bigger than its actual size.
A pencil this size would be over
four feet wide. The picture
shows the honeycomb shaped
cells which make up the cedar
wood in the pencil. When the

The tennis racquet in Figure 4 is
made of composites. Composites
are made with two or more
materials put together in a
special way to get a stronger or a
superior material. Composites
have properties that are better
than any of the individual
materials by themselves. Look at
the composites listed in Table 1.
Tennis racquets are made of a
lot of different things like: layers
of wood using ash and maple,
49

Figure 5
Sections have been cut away from
the handle and head of the
composite tennis racquet. The
arrows point to the fibers and
plastics in the head and to the
foam core in the handle.

fiberglass, graphite and many
other combinations. A graphite
composite racket is very strong
because it is made by mixing
graphite fibers with epoxy
plastic. The handles are made of
polyurethane plastic foam as
shown in Figure 5.
The racquets used today are
much stronger and lighter than
the older wooden and metal
ones. The lightness and strength
of the racquets allow the players
to hit the ball with more power
and control. The next time you
see someone playing tennis you
will know their racquet is
probably made of composites.
Metals

Metals are very important to us.
See sample metals in Table 1.
Silver is used for fillings in teeth.
Nickel is used to make dimes,
quarters and nickels. Copper is
used to coat a zinc penny. Metals
50

Figure 6
Racing bicycles use light weight materialsfor the frame but most bikes
have steelframes with polymers—plastic seat and rubber tires.

are usually hard. They can be
formed into very nice shapes
such as the steel frame of a
bicycle. Steel is a metal alloy of
iron and carbon.
STOP! Look at the neat bike in
Figure 6. Can you guess some of
the materials used to make this
bike? First, start with naming the
parts of the bike and then see if
you can name some of the
materials. Also list their
properties.
For instance, the frames
usually are steel. However, for
racing bikes very strong and
light weight materials titanium
or aluminum are used.
Composites like graphite-epoxy
may be used, but these materials
are more expensive than steel.
Spokes can be steel or plastics
such as nylon. The seat is vinyl
plastic stuffed with cotton fibers
or foam rubber. The tires are

usually made of rubber or
plastic. On some children’s
bikes, the handle bars are steel
with a chrome plating. Plastic
reflectors are made of acrylic and
horns of ABS with rubber bulbs.
Where do you see other metals?
Ceramics

Go back to Table 1 to see
examples of ceramics. These
materials were some of the first
ever used by people. Some
ceramics are made from clay; for
example, bricks and flower vases.
Glass, a ceramic, is made from
silica which is sand. Most
ceramics are very hard but break
easily.
At one time milk was sold in
glass milk bottles to grocery
stores and schools but they were
heavy and broke easily. Then it
became popular to use wax
coated paperboard (polymers)
for milk cartons.
■ Resources in Technology

Figure 7
Shows children placing refillable school milk bottles on their lunch trays.
The milk bottles are made ofpolycarbonate resin from GE Plastics and
are recyclable.
Materials and Our
Environment

Thousands of paperboard milk
cartons are being used in schools
today that are filling landfills
across the country. Reusable 8
ounce polycarbonate plastic milk
bottles are being manufactured
to replace the paperboard milk
cartons as shown in Figure 7.
This means the cartons can be
cleaned and refilled with milk
instead of throwing them away.
This could be a part in helping
reduce solid waste in landfill
dumps.
This brings us back to
responsibilities for you, me and
Resources in Technology ■

every member of society. We
must be informed about
technology, work together to
find solutions, and do our share
to maintain a steady and safe
flow in the making-using­
disposal stream of materials.
So after learning about the
different materials in our world,
we will bc better able to decide
what to do with our things when
we no longer want or need
them. Maybe they are broken
and need to be thrown away.
How much do you throw away
each day? If you are like the
average American, then you
throw away about 3.5 pounds
each day.

Are you concerned about
where we are going to put all
this rubbish? You should be,
since this nation is running out
of space to throw our garbage.
Much of the discarded waste has
created threats to the
environment and to the health
of those who live near the
dumps. We put our trash in a
trash can so others won’t have to
look at our trash. But what
about putting it in a trash can.
You know it is picked up by a
big truck, but is it important
what we put in the trash can.
Some things are recyclable and
some are not. We must consider
what these things are made of
before we throw them away.
Biodegradable means materials
breakdown through the natural
action of the environment. Sun,
water, heat and microorganism
(bugs), will break down waste
materials and reduce their effect
on the environment. Recent
diggings through garbage
dumps have unearthed food
(corn on the cob, chicken, hot
dogs, etc.) which are polymers,
that looked like they were buried
yesterday; but, in fact, they had
been in the landfill 10 years.
Newspapers, a polymer, buried
60 years ago can be easily read
when dug up. Other items
unearthed showed little signs of
biodegrading after a decade or
more are paper containers and
wrappers, steel cans, clothing,
grass clippings and a variety of
plastic products. For
biodegrading to occur, there
must be 65% moisture, but
landfills typically are held to
20-25% moisture to prevent
washing out chemicals into
ground water below.
51

She is using glue, string, wood,
and nails. All of those things are
polymers except the nails are
metal.
*Pitch in and do your part!*

Summary

Figure 8
Bridge building with wood, glue, string, and nails.

Students should be aware of the
things around them and to have
an idea of how the materials and
their properties effect us. When
you buy things, consider how
the products might be used. Are
the materials sturdy, will they last
very long, can they be recycled
at a later time, and are they
biodegradable?
Look around our material
world! Become familiar with the
thousands of different materials.
Studying materials is an easy way
to learn about science and
technology.
Student Quiz

1. Name the materials found in
the Family of Materials.

If newspaper, packaging and
clothing do biodegrade then
they releases ink, dye and paint
that can pollute. So it is very
important that we try to recycle
as much waste as we can to help
protect our environment.
Some plastics may harm
wildlife and mess up the
landscape. For example, a
six-pack beverage biodegradable
carrying ring should decompose
after several months of exposure
to the sun but can be harmful to
our wildlife in the process. It
should be pointed out that these
products do not breakdown
completely as does rusting steel
or most paper products.
The use of paper appears to be
more desirable in its ability to
52

pack down in landfills, and it
becomes soggy and sinks to the
bottom of rivers, lakes, and
oceans. We should use plastics
where it can be recycled, but
using ceramic cups or glasses to
drink out of would be best as they
can be washed and used many
times before throwing them away.
For shopping, we should consider
using a cloth bag instead of paper
or plastic bags.
The girl in Figure 8 is
building a model of a bridge
using materials that you just
learned about. She drew a
picture of the bridge she wanted
to build thinking about how
strong it should be and made a
list of the materials that would
be needed.

1. (metals)

2. (ceramics')

3. (polymers') 4. (composites')

2. What form of materials do
most materials come in? solid
matter
3. Name four properties of
materials.

1. (tough)

2. (hard)

3. (light)

4. (heavy)

4. Name two other possible
materials that are made of
carbon?
graphite and diamond

Hint: You can write with one.
The other is sometimes found in
rings.
■ Resources in Technology

Possible Student Outcomes

—Name materials in the Family
of Materials.
—List materials that are carbon
—Tell the form of matter for
most materials.
—Name some properties of
materials.
—Explain what biodegradable
means.
—Be aware of consumer
products
Acknowledgements

Figure 1 Courtesy Walt Disney
Company 1986
Figure 2 & 3 Courtesy Oak
Ridge National Laboratory
Figure 6 Courtesy Mossberg
Figure 7 Courtesy of General
Electric
Figure 8 Courtesy MESA,
University of Washington
References and Sources of
More Information

Jacobs, James A. & Thomas F.
Kilduff. (1985) Engineering
Materials Technology,
Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Edwards, K. H., Miller, A. D.,
MacGowan P. M., Stoebe, T.
G. (1973) Materials and
Technology Curriculum Project
University of Washington,
Seattle, WA 98195.
Keep America Beautiful Catalog
of inexpensive educational
materials including videotapes
posters and other aids. Write
to Keep America Beautiful,
Inc. Mill River Plaza, 9 West
Broad Street, Stanford, CT
06902. Phone 203-323-8987.

Resources in Technology ■

Design Brief
Problem:

To build something of your choice using a
variety of materials.

Objective:

To gain experience with materials and their
properties.

Challenge:

Make something interesting and maybe useful
with a group of materials given to you.

Materials
and Equipment:

—use only cardboard, foil, and Saran wrap,
string
—glue, tape, and/or staples may be used for
joining

Procedures:

The girl in Figure 8 built a bridge, you build something else using
different materials provided by your teacher. Make a list of the
materials you used, what they were used for, and what properties
make them desirable for that use.
Example:

Material

Family Group

Use

Properties

String

Polymer

Suspend bridge

Stiffness

Nails

Metal

Join wood

Hard

If you use glue, tape, or staples, include them in your list.

53

RESOURCES IN TECHNOLOGY

Sports and Technology
Fred W. Hadley

ne of the greatest benefits of
technology can bc found in its
application toward improving
the quality of life for people.
As our society’s leisure time continues to
increase due to improvements in our
production methods and materials, the
sports and recreational industries are using
technology to enhance that time with
innovative products and more complete
services. Individuals engaged in various
types of competitive and recreational sports,
at both professional and amateur levels, are
now using new and emerging technologies
to study athletic performance and develop
new training techniques. They arc
additionally applying better methods and
exciting new materials in the production of
equipment and suitable wearing apparel.

O

Historical Perspective

These people are enjoying the benefits ofboth old and new technology as they take advantage ofsome Winter
leisure time. (Courtesy: W. L. Gore & Associates, Inc.)

There was a time (in the far and distant
past) when a college football player was
considered adequately protected from
serious injury when he strapped on a simple
leather helmet to protect his head.
Fortunately, especially for the players,
someone finally decided that more
protection was needed if many serious
injuries were to be prevented or at least
curtailed. Following that revelation, various
types of better helmets, pads and other
protective equipment were developed.
While many positive effects were
immediately evident, some negative ones
also surfaced. These were basically confined
to restrictive strapping and bulk of the new
gear. Additionally, the increased weight
placed on the players by the added
equipment, further restricted their
movements and speeds.
Hiking and backpacking, particularly for
extended distances, were once activities
practiced primarily by the Boy Scouts and
only a few hardy individuals, who were
seemingly immune to adverse weather
conditions. Today, however, thousands of
people are very active in these two
recreational sports as well as many other
outdoor pursuits. Just a few of these are
fishing, mountain or rock climbing,
orienteering and family camping. Along
with these are many associated activities
such as outdoor cookery, canoeing, diving,
etc.

■ Resources in Technology

Social/Cultural Impact
The effects of our leisure time and how we
choose to use it impact on our society in
many areas, i.e., social, economic and
cultural. As society’s interest in fitness and
recreation emerged in the mid-1980’s, over
$200 billion was being spent annually by
Americans on products, development and
use. Today, that figure is much larger.
Spectator sports consume an enormous
amount of our society’s leisure time. Our
nation’s passion for the National Football
League and its games has been well
documented in countless journals and
articles as well as on innumerable radio and
television programs. Similar comments
would apply just as well for tennis, golf,
baseball, bowling and racing. Our national
interest in sports was recently exemplified at
the 1992 Summer Olympic Games.
Broadcasting networks spent over $400

million for the rights to broadcast the
games to their audiences.
The mental effects of leisure time on
society are, hopefully, positive. The
improved materials and equipment made
possible by technology’s inputs to the
sports, recreational and leisure time
industries are adding even more to these
positive effects and, thus, to the benefits of
them to society.

Contemporary Analysis
The nearly phenomenal growth of our
recreational and sports industries has been
due primarily to our increased leisure time
and the proliferation of stronger, much
lighter and more durable gear for use in the
various sports. Further, in competition
sports such as football, siding, swimming,
track, skating, etc., computer programs
have been developed to improve all aspects
of an athlete’s or team’s performance. Let’s

By utilizing windproof, yet breathable and lightweightfabrics in their lines of outdoor clothing, garment
manufacturers are now able to provide comfort as well as protection for outdoor enthusiasts. (Courtesy: W.
L. Gore & Associates, Inc.)

Resources in Technology ■

look briefly at some recent developments in
a variety of sports or leisure activities.
In the decade of the 1980’s a national
fixation on personal physical fitness
emerged which is still occurring.
Businesspersons began jogging during their
lunch hours and some even began placing
exercise equipment in their businesses for
their employees. Physical fitness courses
were constructed in many parks and many
walking routes were established in shopping
malls so that weather would not adversely
effect exercising. Affordable training
equipment was developed for the athlete
who simply wanted work out at home.
Neighborhood health clubs and gyms
experienced a rapid growth in customer
activity. This physical fitness craze
precipitated the development of many new
and non-traditional forms of athletic
training equipment.
A national magazine recently included
several new types of recreational and
exercise equipment in its list of the 100
greatest achievements in science and
technology for 1992. One of these is a
combination of a cross-country skiing
machine, a stair climber and a treadmill.
The unit, developed and built by
NordicTrack, is suitable for home and
fitness center use. It continuously monitors
the user’s calorie consumption, pulse,
speed, time and distance traveled. The unit
is ideally suited for family use since up to
three individuals can program their own
workouts into it according to their weights,
ages and endurance levels.
Also included in the magazine’s list was a
radically designed mountain bicycle that
uses suspension components similar to an
aircraft’s and a new type of skateboard,
called a Snakeboard, which has
independently pivoting foot platforms to
make it much more maneuverable than
more traditional designs.
Tennis and golf players are constantly in
search of the ‘perfect swing.’ Using
composite materials such as graphite and
fiberglass, frustrated athletes are now a bit
closer to that elusive goal. According to
Robin D. Arthur, Director of Engineering
for Grafalloy, a Prince Company (they make
the tennis racquet with the ‘P’ on the face),
a concerted effort is being made to develop
a better golf club using composites. The
new designs being developed will hit a golf
ball further than ever before. Using similar
technology, tennis racquets are being
produced that have a much better ‘sweet
spot’.
Many high tech materials are now being
used in sports equipment. The same
materials used in the production of high

55

performance aircraft may also be used to
help athletes toward higher performances.
Allied Signal Corporation produces a highly
structured polyethylene fiber that has been
used in helicopter shields and bulletproof
vests. The fiber, called Spectra, is now being
used in tennis racquets to dampen string
vibration and dramatically improve
durability.
Campers, skiers and other outdoor
athletes can now enjoy their respective
sports more without fear of being cold and
miserable most of the time thanks to
materials like Thinsulate, an insulating
material developed by 3-M about fifteen
years ago. Now, in a new production
process, original Thinsulate mixes can be
combined with several metallic oxides (i.e.,
ceramics) to produce materials which are
about 20 percent warmer than the original
material. The new material uses not only a
person’s body heat for warmth, but also,
because of the newly added ceramic
materials, the sun’s energy.
A new treatment process for fabrics has
also been developed by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture that will help
the wearer stay cool when its hot and warm
when its cold. In the process, polyethylene
glycol (PEG) attaches to the fibers of the
original materials. This gives the materials
the ability to absorb, store and release large
amounts of heat. Materials may be designed
specifically for certain situations such as a
for a person who is outdoors in very cold
weather for long periods of time. Such an
individual will require a material that retains
more heat than someone in more moderate
environment.
For as long as man has walked in the
great outdoors, whether for basic survival
or the pursuit of pleasures such as hiking,
fishing or camping trips, one of his greatest
concerns has been keeping his feet dry.
Nothing can dampen the spirits of an
outdoors person quite so rapidly as a pair of
cold, soggy boots. Now W. L. Gore and
Associates of Wilmington, DE, have
developed a material called Gore-Tex. This
new featherlight material, which can used in
the production of footgear as well as for
clothing, contains nine billion tiny pores in
each square inch of surface area. Each pore
is 700 times larger than a water vapor
molecule, yet thousands of times smaller
than a water droplet. Wind and water can’t
penetrate the tiny pores, but body
perspiration can still escape, allowing the
foot (or other body part) inside to stay dry.
A running shoe has been developed that
gives its user more spring-action in each
stride. This better performance is the result
of super light, yet very strong carbon fiber

56

Skiing and its associated activities are major economic factors in many mountain areas. Technology has
impacted all aspects of the sport, from the composites now used in equipment manufacture to improved
techniques through the use of computers. (Courtesy: W. L. Gore & Associates, Inc.)

springs which return over 70 percent of the
runner’s expended energy. It has been
estimated that the newly designed shoes
may improve a runner’s performance as
much as three percent. In future track
events, where times are measured in
hundredths of a second, the new design
may cause a revolution.
Dr. Igor Gamow, who developed the
shoe discussed above, has also developed a
portable system to rescue mountaineers
stricken with altitude sickness. The Gamow
Bag, as it is known, can be inflated with a
foot pump to create an interior pressure on
its occupant that simulates pressures found
at lower altitudes. Using the same principles
in reverse, Dr. Gamow has also designed a

similar system for sea level athletes to
acclimate them to higher altitudes.
The near-perfect performance of our
Olympic athletes last Summer in Barcelona,
Spain, was no fluke. In addition to the
countless hours of dedicated training
required, the future Olympians were also
greatly served by technology. At the
Olympic Training Centers in both
Colorado and New York, a high-technology
approach was given to many of the training
methods and materials.
Newly designed handlebars for cyclists
were used to create a more aerodynamically
shaped body position for racers. Archers
used lasers to send their arrows toward their
targets more accurately and kayakers were

■ Resources in Technology

A composite is a combination of materials that in
unison make them a more usable, very often
stronger and lighter material. These properties
make composites idealfor many sports applications.
Thisgraphite tennis racquet has helped to improve
the game of many players, both amateur and
professional. Courtesy: Grafalloy, USA)

A microporous membrane, called Gore-Tex, allows body moisture to escape from these boots while outside
water such as rain and dew are prevented from entering. If the sweat in an outdoor enthusiast’sfootgear is
not allowed to get out, uncomfortable feet will soon result. (Courtesy: W L. Gore & Associates, Inc.)

able to perform better using new designs
that produced less drag in the water. Even
the ammunition used by Olympic match
shooters was improved by making each load
exactly the same for every shell.
CAD/CAM was used to design and
improve the drag coefficient of many pieces
of Olympic equipment, from skiing helmets
to bicycle wheels to bobsleds.
Another excellent illustration of
technology at work can be seen in the
training of Olympic and other competitive
skiers. While many of the training aspects of
the sport are quite complex, several are
readily seen. The application of
aerodynamic principles has had a very large
impact on skiing. Athletes now arc often
trained in a low-speed wind tunnel to test
airflow over various styles of tuck (i.e.
stance) and clothing. In speed skiing, the
athlete is viewed as a dart with the ultimate
goal being increased velocity. To this end,
skiers may now be seen wearing not only
streamlined helmets and skin-tight suits,
but also leg fairings to increase airflow and
lessen their coefficient of drag. Using
training methods and materials such as
these, speeds of up to 139 mph have
already been achieved.
Using a sophisticated data acquisition
system (DAS), trainers in the sport of
Olympic rowing were able to obtain much
more information on each rower’s
performance. Previously, ergometers could
accurately measure an athlete’s strength,
but didn’t take into account the rower’s

Resources in Technology ■

ability to use that strength while balancing a
shell or to make adjustments in his
performance to allow for wind, waves and
water speed. Now, using more than a
hundred sensors, the DAS system can
measure an individual’s performance
relative to the shell’s movements, wind and
water velocities, oar angles, seat position
and other related data.
During the 1992 Summer Olympic
Games, IBM developed a data-distribution
system that employed over 1,400
computers. This system of information
processing let American audiences have
almost instantaneous games results from
Barcelona, Spain. The network used IBM’s
PS/2 personal computers to feed data into
its ES/9000 computer. The ES/9000 then
organized all the data from the individual
computers and transmitted it to waiting
stations all over the world.
A video/computer system has been
developed by Peak Performance
Technologies of Englewood, CO, that
provides coaches and trainers from a wide
variety of sports with comprehensive
biomechanical analysis of their athletes. The
Peak Video Illustrator helps improve and
evaluate athletic movements by comparing
everything from individual performance
and technique to tracking an entire team’s
movements. It does this by transferring a
videotaped sequence to computer memory.
Once transferred, the sequence can
immediately bc retrieved and replayed for
individualized coaching and instruction.

The system can show full and half screen
views of athletes in forward and reverse
speeds and even simultaneously display
multiple images of die same sequence.
Peak has also developed a module for
measuring and viewing movement in three
dimensions (3-D) simultaneously. Formerly,
because of difficulty in gathering 3-D data,
researchers and trainers have had to restrict
both the movements they analyzed and the
types of parameters they measured. Using
this newly developed technology, they can
produce 3-D data quickly and very
accurately. Now, for example, using a
split-screen image, multiple position
displays of a golf swing can be viewed from
a front perspective and a side view
simultaneously. Applications of this
technology not only include nearly every
sport, but may also bc found in
biomechanics, ergonomics, zoology,
rehabilitation, industrial engineering and
many other diverse and seemingly unrelated
fields, such as veternary science.
The primary purpose of winter clothing
is to keep its wearer dry and warm. At one
time when a backpacker or hunter (or other
outdoors person) was sufficiently protected
from the elements, body movement was
very often severely restricted. Now new
materials have made possible die
development of light-weight, yet very warm
and comfortable, sportswear.
Polypropylene underwear can now be worn
to hold in body heat while it wicks’ away
the wearer’s perspiration. Without such a

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This video illustrator system can be used in a wide variety ofsports training applications and motion measurement disciplines to compare individual technique,
track team movements and evaluate reactions of individuals in a team setting. (Courtesy: Peak Performance Technologies, Inc.)

wicking action, even a relatively easy activity
such as walking would soon leave the
wearer dripping in his or her own sweat due
polypropylene’s ability to retain body heat.
Many garments are made largely with
polyesters. The fiber produced has a high
modulus, making it stiff and springy.
Because of its high modulus, it does not
readily flatten out or compress which leaves
the dead air spaces within it intact. The
trapped air within the garment provides the
wearer with excellent insulation and body
heat retention.
The outer layer of most clothing for
cyclists, hikers, etc. is ideally both a wind
and a waterproof covering. Traditionally,
man-made fabrics such as nylon or acrylics,
etc. have been used, but unless properly
vented by zippers or other weatherproof
openings, moisture (sweat) has made the
garments somewhat less than ideal.
Although various fabrics have been
developed over the years which purported
to breathe (i.e., allow the escape of body
moisture) and still remain waterproof,
satisfactory performance in the great
outdoors has been limited at best.
Finally, however, it appears that
technology has provided the outdoor sports
person with some real relief. Gore-Tex, the

58

windproof and waterproof fabric discussed
earlier along with boots, appears to be the
long awaited answer to many sportsmen’s
dreams. When this waterproof, windproof,
breathable laminate is bonded to a durable
outer material, it brings ideal protection
from the elements to an almost unlimited
variety of products, from no-nonsense
survival gear to high fashion rainwear.
Products using Gore-Tex are used by
everyone from military pilots to firefighters
to Olympic athletes.

Design Brief
Context
Both exercising at home to promote
personal fitness and more formal physical
conditioning programs cause an individual’s
heart rate to increase. The increase may or
may not be different for various persons.

Objectives
• Prepare a chart
• Construct a graph
• Use library resources

Challenge
Working in a group of three or four
students, prepare a chart or graph

indicating the following for the members of
your group: age, resting heart rate, heart
rate after both mild and strenuous exercise
and desired heart rate, also called intensity
heart rate (IR). Refer to the MST section of
this article for additional information. Use
heart rate and appropriate data from your
instructor and other adults to add
comparative information to your chart or
graph. Use library resources if no one in
your group knows how to find and
determine an individual’s pulse (or heart
rate). You may choose to use color in your
work for a more easily read chart or graph.
Evaluation: Participate in a class discussion
and compare the results each group
obtained. Draw conclusions after
considering the factors listed above and
others such as a person’s weight, sex,
general level of exercise (i.e., football player,
track, dancer, etc.).

M/S/T Interface
An athlete’s heart rate is an important
factor during physical training. Before
actually determining what that rate should
be for a given athlete, several variables must
necessarily be taken into account. Some of
these are age, sex, general physical
condition and personal health

■ Resources in Technology

Three dimensionalgraphics video programs and equipment have the capability of incrementally rotating the spatial model. Thisgolfer’s swing can now be seen
from any perspective—front, back, oblique or even from above. (Courtesy: Peak Performance Technologies, Inc.)

considerations, such as past medical history
and existing medical conditions.
Unconditioned persons have a low
threshold for improving fùnctional capacity,
whereas conditioned trainees require a
greater intensity level to increase aerobic
fitness. In other words, an athlete in good
physical condition must work harder in
training to achieve improved fitness levels
than one in poor condition.
In order to get the maximum benefit
from workouts or training sessions, coaches
and trainers must work their athletes
sufficiendy hard enough to do some real
good without actually pushing him or her
too hard. That limit is determined by
establishing a desired heart rate called the
intensity rate (IR). It may be different for
every athlete being trained so it must be
determined on an individual basis.
Determining an athlete’s desired heart rate,
or IR, during exercise requires considering
several different, yet closely related factors.
Two of these are resting heart rate and
maximum heart rate. Age and physical
condition must also be considered.

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Different methods of deciding what an
athlete’s IR should be are being used. In a
formal training situation, fairly complex
procedures may be employed that help
trainers learn about factors they may wish
to consider, such as percentage of body fat,
heart rate reserve and an athlete’s functional
capacity. For everyday athletes like joggers,
home weight lifters, hikers, etc., a simplified
method has been used for years which is
adequate for most situations, following a
family doctor’s approval to begin an
exercise program.
Simply, an athlete’s age is subtracted
from 220. The resulting number is used as
that person’s desired or intensity heart rate
(IR). During and after exercising, the
individual working out takes his or her
pulse, counting for 10 seconds and
multiplying the number by 6. The answer is
that person’s heart rate per minute. If it is
much lower than the targeted IR, the
person must work harder to achieve
maximum benefit from the workout. If the
result is higher, the person had better slow
down.

Summary
Technology has crossed the starting line
and is making significant impacts in all areas
of sports and recreation. New equipment
and computer training methods in the
multi-million dollar spectator sports, such
as professional football and tennis, have had
major social and economic impacts.
Individual and family sports and
recreational activities like backpacking,
camping and fishing have also reaped the
benefits of technology, from warm clothing
in freezing weather to dry feet during a
pouring rain.

Student Quiz
1. List three examples of sports
equipment where high-tech materials are
being used.
2. Explain some of the benefits computer
technology has provided to competition
sports.
3. What are some socio-cultural results of
our fascination with physical fitness? Are
they all positive? Why or why not?

59

4. Why is it important for an athlete’s
clothing to breathe’? What would happen if
it did not?
5. What effect does exercise have on an
individual’s heart rate? Is it the same for all
persons? Explain.
6. Why is form fitting clothing worn in
speed skating and down hill racing (skiing)?
7. How do materials such as Gore-Tex
help die outdoor sports person?
8. What effect do the dead air spaces in
clothing have? Is this a positive or negative
factor in an athlete's performance? Why?
9. How are some aerodynamic principles
being applied to sports equipment and
clothing?
10. Briefly discuss the economic impacts
of our interest in body spectator and
participatory sports.

Possible Student Outcomes
• List examples of new materials being
used in the production of sports equipment
• Contrast earlier training methods and
equipment to present practices
• Complete a design brief comparing
individual heart rates

• Discuss the socio-cultural impacts of new
materials on sports equipment
• Associate math and science as an integral
part of technology

References
“Best of What’s New: The Tear’s 100
Greatest Achievements in Science and
Technology.” Popular Science, December
1992, pp. 76, 78 and 86.
Dane, Abe. “The Mechanics of Skiing.”
Popular Mechanics, February 1992, pp.
34-37.
Fletcher, Colin. The Complete Walker III.
New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992.
Gorman, Stephan. “Pedestrian Pleasures.”
Backpacker, April 1992, pp. 87-90.
Howe, Steve. “Portable Infernos.”
Backpacker, April 1992, pp. 78-82.
Neiman, David C. Fitness and Sports
Medicine: An Introduction. Palo Alto,
CA: Bull Publishing Co, 1990.
Physiological Testing of the High Performance
Athlete. Editors: J. Duncan McDougall,
Howard A. Wenger & Howard J. Green.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Books,
1991.

Pytlik, Edward C., Donald P. Lauda, David
L. Johnson. Technology, Change and
Society. Worcester, MA: Davis
Publications, 1985.
Rennicke, Jeff. “Sweet Dreams.”
Backpacker, April 1992, pp. 35-40.
Shepherd, Paul. “The Torch of
Technology.” Omni, July 1992, pp.
42-46.
Sovriero, Marcelle M. “The Inside Story on
Outdoor Gear.” Popular Science, May
191, pp. 82-85.
The Team Physician’s Handbook. Editors:
Morris B. Mellion, Guy L. Shelton & W.
Micheal Walsh. Philadelphia: Hanley &
Belfus, Inc., 1990.
Vizard, Frank. “The Technology of the
Olympics.” Popular Mechanics, February
1992, pp. 26-28.

Math/Science/Technology
Projects
This publication presents 14 Technology
Education project ideas and relates them to
applicable mathematical or scientific
principles and their societal or
environmental impact.
Donald Maley, DTE, Ed., 54 pages

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RESTON, VA 22091-1502