MAKING CAREER SENSE ELAINE O'REILLY and DIANE ALFRED Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information by Elaine O'Reilly and Diane Alfred Contributing Partners: Human Resources Development Canada Province of British Columbia Ministry of Skills, Training and Labour Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information by Elaine O'Reilly Algonquin College Diane Alfred Human Resources Development Canada Canadian Cataloguing in Publication Data O'Reilly, Elaine, 1949Making career sense of labour market information Contributing partners (cited inside cover): Canadian Guidance and Counselling Foundation, Algonquin College, B.C. Ministry of Skills, Training and Labour, Human Resources Development Canada. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-9698388 6-7 1. Labour market—Canada. 2. Vocational guidance—Canada. I. Alfred, Diane, 1955 II. Canadian Guidance and Counselling Foundation. III. Algonquin College. IV. British Columbia. Ministry of Skills, Training and Labour. V. Canada. Human Resources Development Canada. VI. Title. HD5728.Q6 1995________ 331.12'0971____________ C95-920994-8 © Canadian Guidance and Counselling Foundation, 1995 Published and distributed by: Canadian Guidance and Counselling Foundation 202 - 411 Roosevelt Avenue Ottawa, Ontario K2A 3X9 Tol: (G13) 729-6164 Fax: (613) 729 3515 © mall: bd579@freenot.carleton.ca FOREWORD Not long ago, those providing career assistance — whether in education, community agencies, or employment offices — could feel relatively comfortable concentrating their efforts on assisting youth or adults in transition, in “looking inward” to determine what they would really like to be doing for a living. While there has always been some emphasis on “looking outward” to understand what fields might offer particular promise, the business of career decision making tended to be grounded mainly in self-understanding. Once a tentative goal was established, one assumed that the goal could be realized. This was consistent with a belief that the labour market would provide limitless opportunities to apply one’s knowledge and skills in meaningful ways. As recently as five years ago, very few practitioners sought books or courses to help them learn about the labour market, and few courses existed. What a lot has changed in a short time! The labour market environment for career decision making has become much more complex and the pace and nature of change much more rapid and unpredictable. Long-term commitments to an occupation or a single employer have given way to a full range of new work structures. Most of us now expect to have multiple career changes over a lifespan. Students, clients and workers — both employed and unemployed — are becoming much more proactive in seeking information about the changing world of work and the options open to them. Career development practitioners face a whole new challenge in response to these demands. The need to learn about labour market information — and particularly to research and apply labour market concepts — is growing exponentially. Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information is an important and timely response to this need. This text is the realization of the vision and diligent efforts of many people who are committed to supporting practitioners in delivering quality career services to youth and adults. The initial idea leading to the first draft of this text came from Stuart Conger, former Executive Director of the Canadian Guidance and Counselling Foundation. He was, at that time, overseeing the Creation and Mobilization of Counselling Resources for Youth (CAMCRY), a large-scale research and development initiative funded by Human Resources Development Canada (HRDC) and a wide range of partners nationally. One of CAMCRY’s goals was to develop a full array of state-of-the-art training programs for career development practitioners. Stuart believed strongly that labour market information should become a much more important element in the preparation of practitioners. The first draft of this text was completed by Elaine O’Reilly, with the active collaboration of Gayle Dumsday, Head of Counselling Services at Algonquin College in Ottawa, and CGCF. Elaine’s blend of practical counselling skills and knowledge, her outstanding investigative and writing skills, as well as her strong i belief in the need to strengthen practitioners’ labour market skills, led in 1993 to a solid first draft of the book. The second wave of major work on the book was done by Diane Alfred, an Economist with the Economic Services Branch of B.C./Yukon Region of HRDC. Her depth and breadth of labour market knowledge, her exceptional ability to explain challenging economic concepts in clear terms, and her engaging writing style have made an outstanding contribution. Diane created an improved structure for the book, developed a number of major new sections and significantly enhanced a number of the chapters. An exceptional Advisory Committee provided many valuable insights and creative suggestions and reminded everyone of the importance of the work. Members included Kathy Stephens as Chair, Marcy Cohen, Ruth Emery, Cathy Griffin, Carla Schafer, John Walsh, Valerie Ward and Larry Warren. The collaboration between CGCF and B.C. partners evolved through a fortunate synergy of needs and efforts. At the time CGCF had completed the first draft of the text, intensive work was already underway within B.C. to enhance the province’s LMI resources and strategies. B.C. Ministry of Skills, Training and Labour (MSTL), in partnership with HRDC and others, was implementing a comprehensive and ambitious plan to develop a range of new LMI products for use by practitioners. Once it became apparent that there was a strong match between the vision of B.C. partners and what CGCF hoped to achieve, a partnership was formed that resulted in a quality of text that otherwise would not have been possible. Kathy Stephens played a key role in the realization of this project — from the outset, persuading others of the potential of this partnership, then shepherding its movement from concept to reality on behalf of MSTL. Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information can serve either as a “stand alone” resource or as the text for the course of the same name. Interested readers are encouraged to seek out opportunities to pursue this training. A special thanks to HRDC B.C./Yukon Region, for enabling Diane to work full-time on the book for several months. We would also like to express appreciation to PMF Editorial Services Inc. for their editing and desktop publishing. And finally, many thanks to Valerie Ward for her professional consultation and for managing the project on behalf of CGCF. To readers, we invite your comments, and wish the best of success to you and your clients and students as you navigate the ever-challenging and changing labour market. Lynne Bezanson Executive Director ii PREFACE New technology. It was supposed to make our jobs (and our lives) easier. What it has done is given us constant access to such an overload of changing information that it is hard to call anything “finished.” Take this book for example. Between the time of writing and the time the book was ready for print, newer data became available, and more recent books became available for reference material. The most important message of this book is that the process of searching out information is just as valuable as the content gathered. Learning to ask certain types of questions about job opportunities and learning where to go for updated answers will be skills needed by everyone trying to survive the job market. Because information can change so rapidly, it is very important to choose carefully the sources of information for your decisions and to always keep looking for new facts. Counsellors, teachers and others providing career services have been affected by the new “information era” in very concrete ways. Clients and students are adding a few more questions to their lists. As well as: “What would I like? What occupation would be suitable for my interests and aptitudes?” they are now asking questions about the demand for workers and the kinds of opportunities they can expect: “Will there be a job in this field? What field can I train in that will give me a job? Are there many openings in this field?” Is it possible for us to have the answers to such questions for all occupations? It is highly unlikely. But we can know where to go to get that information and we can train our clients and students to do it for themselves the next time they are looking for a job or occupational change. The need to understand the labour market context of occupations and employment decisions will persist over their lifetime, which is one of the “future” trends we will all have to deal with. This book is meant to be an introduction to the different parts of the labour market and how they interact with each other so a reader with very little knowledge in the area (many counsellor/teacher training programs don’t include labour market courses) can get an overview or a sense of the labour market “gestalt.” DESCRIPTION OF CONTENTS PREFACE 1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... .. 1 2. LABOUR MARKET TRENDS ................................................................. .. 5 3. A. Innovations in Technology and Globalization: impact on highly skilled, clerical, service occupations; the impact of the reorganization of business and growth in small business on career planning........................................................... .. 5 B. The Shift to Non-Standard Employment: impact on workers; even standard jobs are changing ........................................................... . 23 C. Industrial Shifts: industry/occupation distinction; Nuala Beck's New Economy; focus on the service sector ................................... . 32 D. The Impact of Demographic Change: the impact of demographic change on employment opportunities; the impact on the composition of the labour force; labour law and the composition of the labour force........................................................................... . 38 E. Summary: illustration of the impact of labour market trends on the health care industry ................................................................. . 63 F. Where to Find More: some sources of information on labour market trends and on the labour force ........................................... . 69 JOBS IN THE NEW ECONOMY AND THE NATIONAL OCCUPATIONAL CLASSIFICATION (NOC)........................................... . 73 A. Occupational Classifications: overview of the NOC and accompanying Career Information Handbook (CIH) .................... . 73 B. Occupational Forecasting: overview of COPS/Job Openings vs. Job Growth, What the Numbers Mean........................................... . 82 C. Career Paths and Occupational Mobility: description of inter- and intra-occupational mobility and transferable skills; specific occupational examples for lower-skilled workers, tourism, public relations, trucking, graphic design and retail marketing................ 100 V D. 4. 5. 6. LABOUR MARKET SKILLS FOR A NEW ECONOMY........................... 107 A. Overview of Skills........................................................................... B. Skills for a New Economy: becoming an informed consumer of educational services; developing generic employability skills; realigning expectations; developing entrepreneurial skills and outlook; understanding all the steps in the career decision making process; becoming self-reliant; developing research skills..................................................................................... 109 C. Where to Find More: some sources on skills and the new economy....................................................................... 107 126 LABOUR MARKET INFORMATION FOR CAREER DECISION MAKING .................................................... 127 A. National Labour Market Information............................................... 132 B. Provincial or Local Labour Market Information............................. 138 C. Finding LMI for Emerging Occupations ......................................... 144 D. Where to Find More: some sources on career counselling and the labour market................................................................. 149 EDUCATION AND TRAINING OPTIONS ............................................... A. B. 7. Where to Find More: some information sources on occupational families................................................................................. 106 Educational Structures that Feed the Labour Market; universities and colleges; trades and apprenticeship; professional associations; adult training programs ............ 154 Where to Find More: some sources to go to for information on education and training opportunities; educational organizations ................................................... 171 151 SUMMARY OF KEY THEMES ............................................................... 175 A. Emerging Themes in the New Labour Market ............................... 175 B. Where to Find More: starting a search, some sources of general information ............................................................. 182 APPENDICES Appendix A Labour Market Resources Essential forthe Practitioner ............... 183 Appendix B Glossary.......................................................................................... 189 Appendix C Electronic Information..................................................................... 193 Appendix D The 26 Major Groups of the NOG................................................... 197 Appendix E The Standard Industrial Classification(SIC) Major Groups ............ 199 Appendix F Summaries Based on Industry Sector Human Resource Studies .................................................... 203 Appendix G Provincial and Territorial Ministries with Responsibilities for Labour Market Information.................................... 217 Appendix H Resources for Future Trends, Careers, Workplace Realities, Canadian Career Information Association ................ 219 REFERENCES ................................................................................................ 221 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16 Figure 17 Figure 18 Figure 19 Figure 20 Figure 21 Figure 22 Figure 23 Technology Use, Job Creation and Company Growth Small Business is the Engine of Job Growth Non-standard Employment as a Proportion of Total Employment, 1991, Canada Labour Market Dynamics Some Factors Contributing to Supply and Demand Population and Labour Force Growth Annual Average Increases, Canada Labour Force Participation Rates, Canada Population and Labour Force by Age and Sex, Canada Contribution to Population Growth by Immigration and Natural Causes, Canada Representation of Designated Groups in the Population, Canada Labour Force Participation Rate of Designated Groups, Canada Employment of Designated Groups by Occupation, 1991, Canada Unemployment Rates by Designated Group Status, Canada Average Employment-Related Earnings by Designated Groups, Canada Projected Job Openings by NOG Skill Type, Canada, 1994-2001 Projected Number of Job Openings Sales & Service, British Columbia, 1994-2001 Projected Number of Job Openings Business, Finance & Administration, Ontario, 1994-2001 Projected Number of Job Openings Management, Quebec, 1994-2001 Projected Number of Job Openings Trades, Transport & Equipment Operators, Alberta, 1994-2001 Projected Job Openings for Occupations with High Growth Rates, British Columbia, 1994-2001 Projected Industry Growth Rates, Canada, 1994-2001 Projected Industry Job Openings, Canada, 1994-2001 Unemployment Rate by Educational Attainment, Canada, 1993 Supply and Demand for Educated/Trained Workers Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION The sights, sounds and smells of a market. It’s colourful, cacophonous and pungent — a stimulating environment for people all over the world. Hawkers call out their wares and their prices, thronging crowds surge through the aisles, buyers astutely compare to get the best quality or price for the purchase. Not the usual image that comes to mind when someone hears the words “labour market,” although this market is every bit as alive and exciting as any other when a person knows how to navigate it. The labour market is an arena where those who are in need of labour and those who can supply the labour come together. In a constant state of flux, the market responds to the ever-changing cries of employers for skilled workers and the flaunted demands of workers for positions to show their skills in exchange for some form of compensation. The products and services these sellers and buyers offer each other change as quickly as external influences make themselves known to the tenders of the market. This book is about change — change that is evident in a vital labour market, in a kaleidoscope of workers, in ever-growing data banks, in emerging occupations, in diversifying education and training programs and in restructuring business organizations. These changes are having wide-ranging effects on the labour force. For example: • There is a new way of doing business, running governments and organizing work that will diminish secure, long-term employment for many workers. • Canada’s high-paying, resource-based jobs are being replaced by service sector jobs that pay highly skilled workers well and lower-skilled workers poorly. • In nearly all cases, new ways of doing business and innovations in technology demand more education and training of workers. • The rate of technological change is so rapid that it is difficult for anyone to predict with certainty, what work will remain and what new work will emerge. While some of the above trends are cyclical—that is, related to recessions and/or weak economic growth — most economists believe deeper structural forces such as innovations in technology and the globalization of trade are also causing permanent shifts in the labour market. Without a doubt the changes described in this book and the inevitable feeling of uncertainty they produce can be overwhelming. Canadians Chapter I Introduction 1 are at a turning point in which the assumptions about living and working that they may have come to rely on are being challenged. Counsellors, teachers and others providing career services are not exempt from the Labour Market Definitions Labour Market Information (LMI) is information concerning conditions in, or the operation of, the labour market. This information may be statistical or narrative. It may be related to historical, current or projected circumstances. Particular types of labour market information include data on employment and unemployment, job vacancies, qualifications, compensation and working conditions. Conclusions can be drawn about what type of work is actually available in different industries in a particular location at a particular point in time. Labour market information is an important part of career planning and career counselling. Students/clients need to gain a broad understanding of occupational structure, job families and where to get labour market information to aid in their career decision-making process (Herr, undated, p. 2). Career has been defined in many ways, and the following definitions provide a basis to begin discussion. Career is a lifestyle concept that involves a sequence of work or leisure activities throughout a lifetime. Careers are unique to each person and are dynamic, unfolding throughout life. They include not only occupations, but pre-vocational and post-vocational concerns as well as how individuals integrate their work/life roles (Herr and Cramer, 1984). A career is the sequence of occupations, jobs and positions engaged in or occupied throughout the lifetime of a person (Super and Bohn, 1970, from Srebalus, Marinelli and Messing, 1982, p. 97). realities of the new economy. Take the need for higher skill levels as one example. Practitioners are now expected to use and understand labour market information (LMI) in the career planning process. Consider also that, as a resource for LMI, career practitioners have now joined the ranks of “the messenger,” often delivering information that challenges the world of work people have grown comfortable with. This may result in practitioners experiencing some misdirected anger and resentment from their clients. The 1990s scarcely resemble the industrialized world of the 1950s and 1960s, yet as William Bridges points out, “many of our thought patterns, values and attitudes were conceived during that period” (1994, p. 51). Practitioners will come up against the brick wall of these values and attitudes in their work. Nevertheless, they need to acknowledge the stability that the old economy brought into people’s lives and to appreciate the level of adjustment in expectations and behaviour that is now required. And of course, before practitioners can deal with the healthy reactions of 2 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information denial, fear and anger from clients and students, they must first deal with their own inactions to change and uncertainty. "Multi-skilling” or the need for expanded skill sets, is one of the trends influencing practitioners to provide a more holistic, life-planning approach in career development. For instance: • With workers now changing job areas many times during their working lives, practitioners need to be more knowledgeable about career paths, including interand intra-occupational mobility. This is covered in Chapter 3. • Practitioners need to help clients build buffers and nets to keep multiple job changes from being destructive. Because unemployment and underemployment are becoming a way of life for more and more people, those providing career services need to advise clients and students in such areas as - self-reliance (for example, pointing out the importance of financial planning); and - expectations (for example, providing alternate views and information on how to pursue a fulfilling and meaningful life, despite the decline in traditional jobs and job security). The goal of this approach to career development is not just a job, but a successful and purposeful way of life. Practitioners may feel bogged down by the thought of having to “know it all.” Suggestions in this book are aimed at demonstrating how to develop a resource system and discover particular sources of labour market information that will simplify answering clients’ and students’ questions. For example, Chapter 2 is a fairly detailed look at the major factors influencing the Canadian labour market. While the major themes are summarized in Chapter 7 and reiterated throughout the book, it is suggested that practitioners spend some time with Chapter 2. Its purpose is to sensitize those providing career services to the kinds of issues that have an impact on occupational growth and decline. The trends covered are the ones that practitioners, clients and students should follow in their daily reading of the business section of the newspaper. The authors of this book hope to provide the necessary knowledge and skills to equip clients and students to operate successfully in this rapidly changing world. It is very difficult to predict with absolute certainty what jobs will remain and what new jobs will emerge. For this reason, perhaps one of the most useful things practitioners can do to help prepare clients and students for the future is to advise them on the skills and attitudes needed to operate successfully, no matter what jobs remain and what new work emerges. Chapter 4 is devoted to this subject. Chapter I Introduction 3 Each chapter in this book — if not each subheading — could be a book in itself, so it is emphasized that this serves only as an introduction. The hope is that those providing career services who have not had an orientation to labour market information will begin to incorporate an expanded approach to their career counselling and pass on this crucial skill to clients and students. 4 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Chapter 2 LABOUR MARKET TRENDS This chapter will focus on four major trends in the Canadian labour market. A. B. C. D. Innovations in technology and the globalization of trade The shift to non-standard employment Industrial shifts Demographic changes A brief overview of each of these trends is presented and insight on how these trends will shape tomorrow’s labour market is offered. The impact of government policies and consumer trends is also discussed. A. INNOVATIONS IN TECHNOLOGY AND GLOBALIZATION Technology and globalization go hand-in-hand. Globalization unleashes technology, which in turn drives firms to plan production and sales on a global basis. Technology changes the work we do and in nearly all cases, the jobs created by it demand more education and training. It also changes the way business operates by transforming relationships between suppliers, producers, retailers and customers. (Ross, 1993, p. xii) Survival in the new global business market calls for improved productivity and increased competition. Indeed, firms that have upgraded their products, used technology skilfully and sought niche markets have not only survived, but prospered. However, the down side of increased productivity is the elimination of many jobs in manufacturing, transportation and other high-paying industries. Just as globalization presents Canadians with both challenges and opportunities, so too does technology. Ever since the beginning of the first industrial revolution in the 18th century, the introduction of new technologies has meant both the transfer of jobs from one sector to another (from agricultural labour to the production of farming equipment, for example) and the ultimate creation of more jobs throughout society. Figure 1 shows that, continuing into recent times, companies that make greater use of technology create the most jobs. The more intense the use of technology, the greater the job creation over time. And while many of the jobs created by new technology are frequently not accessible to the people who have been displaced, it is important to remember that job creation by companies that make greater use of technology is not limited to just scientific or technical jobs: chapter Labour Market Trends 5 • The service sector is the largest generator of jobs and many of the jobs created in this sector do not demand high-level technical skills. • Growing manufacturing companies in high-tech sectors also need workers in clerical, finance, shipping/warehousing, sales and marketing fields. Innovations in Technology: Introduction to the Information Era While globalization and the other trends discussed in this chapter will have a huge impact on workers and the labour market, the changes will be small compared to the radical changes brought about by the spread of information technology. Job forecasters believe that those who can figure out how the revolution in information technology will affect hiring practices in their field, will be in a position to take advantage of many opportunities. Beck (Shifting Gears, 1992) and Toffler (Powershift, 1990) are two of the more wellknown future trend writers who speak of the new information or knowledge era which has evolved from the industrial era. There is an explosion of knowledge that is becoming more and more available to the public due to technological advances, and it is changing the power base and the way people tackle their problems. This includes career decision making. Toffler traces the spread of knowledge which was once only accessible to the few, thus supporting a pyramid structure with power resting at the top. He talks of changes in the behaviour and demands of the general population as the information became more accessible to them. A graphic example is the new automated Job Bank information that is available to all job seekers in Canada Employment Centres (CECs) and some off-site locations such as colleges and job-finding clubs. On a computer terminal, anyone can search for job openings locally or nationally, with the information updated hourly. Prior to this, clients were screened by a CEC counsellor before receiving referrals to job openings. 6 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Technology Use, Job Creation and Company Growth Private Sector Job Creation by Technology Use, 1984-1991 Canada 508,000 Employment Growth by Technology Use and Firm Size, 1982-1987 Hi9h Technology Users 135,000 Low Technology Users 423 000 Medium Technology Users Total Jobs Created = 1,066,000 source: Finance Canada. chapter 2 Labour Market Trends Technology Use SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census. The Information Industry An entire industry, the information industry, has grown out of the ability to access and the demand to acquire information instantaneously. Data-base companies, such as Canadian InfoMart, International Data Corporation (IDC), Northern Business Information (NBI) and Dialog, provide articles and reports, topics covered in the newspapers, bibliographies, etc., through a computer or telephone inquiry service. Some information sellers are very specialized such as those that cater to the medical field, architecture, law and even to counsellors. A data-base company as small and specialized as a comput­ erized list of boats for sale across Canada can succeed because of its ability to reach the equally small, specific target audience. This new technology has implications for all of those involved: the clients, the counsellor and the employers posting openings. For example: • Clients have more up-to-date information as well as more responsibility for determining for themselves the most appropriate jobs to apply for. • Fewer CEC counsellors are needed, and the counsellor jobs that remain demand higher skill levels because the only clients receiving counselling are those most at risk and in need of direct intervention. • Employers must take on more of the screening process themselves. For manufacturing companies, the speedy access to massive amounts of information has bestowed power to increase quality and quantity of products, to receive orders from around the world and to reply the same day, to use billing systems that co-ordinate orders and invoices for multi-branched worldwide companies. Research and development companies can receive data from the source before it is even published, making vital information available instantaneously. The general public receives information from media that affects spending habits, charity choices, political decisions and social opinions. Expanding high technology has had a significant impact on virtually all industries. The changing nature of work is evident in the automation changes in the processes of design, manufacturing and quality control, in offices and in transportation, communications, health care and retail services. Tradespersons are finding that the new fabrication materials and computer-based processes are increasing the complexity of their trades. For example, machinists now need computer training to use computerized numeric control (CNC) equipment in manufacturing. As technology advances, new, faster, better goods and services are available and in demand. To fulfil consumer demand, there is another shift in the labour market toward workers who are trained in the skills that can provide such goods and 8 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information services. Although a field may suddenly need people trained in new methods, the technology itself may lessen the number of workers needed in that field. Innovations in Technology: The Growth in Small Business Within the emerging global economy, small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are proving to be the most innovative and the creators of most new work. Although definitions vary, small business is usually defined as companies with less than 100 employees and medium-sized business as companies with 100 to 500 employees. In fact, Statistics Canada reports that small companies with fewer than 20 employees were a dynamic force in job creation in Canada over the last 15 years and, more importantly, job growth surpassed job losses far more often among small Canadian companies than among companies with considerably more employees. I ho growth of SMEs reflects, in part, the transition to a more knowledge-based economy. Knowledge work gives no special advantage to large firms. The use of computers and factory automation is making it possible to produce goods efficiently In smaller volumes. Smaller firms may also enjoy cost advantages. New companies, many of which are small, pay lower wages and offer fewer benefits than existing companies. As well, the expansion of small firms is partly a result of larger firms splitting off parts of their operation and contracting them out. I ho growth of SMEs is also a reflection of how SMEs operate and are organized. Globally competitive SMEs use a change-driven style of operation. This requires flexibility and fast responses to keep up with changes in the global marketplace, Including faster product development, faster production, faster delivery, faster Information processing and faster service. Because SMEs are not usually organized along the lines of the old-style, corporate structure of large companies, they can quickly adapt to the changes and new markets that globalization demands. Implications of Growth in Small Business Since most new jobs are being created by SMEs (see Figure 2), any job search strategy should include them as well as the large, established firms and institutions. There are disadvantages to working for small companies, such as lower average pay and benefits, but as Colin Campbell points out, “in a small company, employees have a better chance of becoming insiders and get a broader range of experience and skills as the company struggles to survive. And if the company does succeed, those who were hired early on will become the key core workers” (1994, p. 41). It is also a good way to “learn the ropes” and gain a broad range of skills before seeking employment in larger companies or self-employment. for their core workers, rapidly growing SMEs look for workers who not only have technical skills, but who are entrepreneurial as well. Those who have some of the managerial skills the employer may lack also have an edge. Chapter 2 Labour Market Trends 9 Figure 2 Small Business Is the Engine of Job Growth Net Jobs Created: 1981-1988 1400 1200 Thousands 1121 1000 800 600 400 200 0 -200 Small Firms * 0-99 employees ___________________________ =48____ Medium Firms * Large Firms * 100-499 employees 500+employees * Average number of workers employed by the firm over entire period. SOURCE: Picot, Baldwin and Dupuy, Have Small Firms Created a Disproportionate Share of New Jobs in Canada? A Reassessment of the Facts, Research Paper 71, Analytical Studies Branch, Statistics Canada, 1994. 10 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Innovations in Technology: The Reorganization of Firms and Institutions The ability to quickly gather large amounts of information on competitors and consumers allows companies to respond to marketdriven or customer-driven demands. In order to do so effectively, many companies have completely re­ organized. Employee teams are created and trained for greater responsibility and decision making in order to solve problems. This method calls for shared information — vertically and laterally. As companies reorganize in response To technology, specialized knowledge Is distributed down from the few at the top to the many in the middle, and the shape of organizations changes to a Hatter structure. Colin Campbell describes the hierarchical structure of older traditional organizations: Each function of a company — marketing, finance, accounting, Information services, production, or purchasing — had its own department, ruled by a manager to whom other managers reported, and other managers with less authority and responsibility reported to this "second” level of management. I ho various departments within the company operated as Independent units with their own agendas, often failing to share Information effectively. Often, they oven acted as though they Were rivals (1994, p. 18). chapter 2 Labour Market Trends Re-engineering According to Michael Hammer, author of Re-engineering the Corporation, as explained in Bridges (1994), re­ engineering is a radical redesign of business processes for dramatic improvement. Re-engineering helps organizations become more efficient and serve the customer better. William Bridges uses an example of re­ engineering from IBM: The Credit Department at IBM is responsible for providing customers with financing for IBM products. Typically, requests for financing took 6-14 days. All too often a competitor approved a credit request more quickly and IBM lost a sale. An analysis of the credit process at IBM showed that performing the actual work took only 90 minutes. The remaining six or more days were consumed by handing the form off from one department to the next. (1994, p. 23) As a result of this analysis, the whole work process was redesigned; the task is now done, beginning to end, by a single employee, instead of sequentially by multiple specialists. Re-engineering allowed IBM’s credit department to reduce its six-day turnaround to four hours and achieve a small work force reduction. Although staff reduction is a usual outcome of re-engineering, that is not its primary purpose. Saving time is at least as important. As long as markets were stable, the hierarchical corporation could prosper. But the increased competition of globalization, with its demand for quick responses requires that firms change their structure. Less hierarchical and less rule-bound corporate structures mean a major adjustment in how workers work. A shift to a more team-based work environment is just one example. The Team Based Workplace Workers in firms and institutions that have been re-engineered to a less hierarchical structure are increasingly working in teams because, as Colin Campbell states, “teams are responsive, adaptable, require less supervision, and generally work better in a business environment of constant change” (1994, p. 20). With innovations in information technology allowing everyone on a team to access information, companies can now move to more team-based workplaces. The resulting “flattened corporation” means middle managers who passed down orders and passed up information are quickly disappearing. In fact, the 1991-1992 recession has been called the “Yuppie Recession” for the devastating effect it had on the ranks of middle management. When flattened, less rigid, less hierarchical companies do hire managers, they look for managers who can act as Outsourcing in the University coaches. Intimidation-style management is detrimental to the Universities provide a good example of new team-focussed environment. outsourcing with regard to maintenance This, in turn, means that managers functions. Maintenance is a large cost in have high expectations for workers running a university. Since teaching and to be flexible and have the attitudes research are the university’s core and behaviours necessary for business, few of those involved in the working in teams. central business of the university — professors, administrators — have Contracting Out expertise in the maintenance area. The Another organizational strategy used university might consider outsourcing its to increase productivity is maintenance work to a company that contracting out or outsourcing, specializes in maintenance since they where every job and function in a know the business and they’ve focussed firm or institution is examined to see on doing what they know best. As a if it would make more sense to result, the university gets more costcontract it out to some external effective maintenance. company or individual. Tasks that have little to do with the primary business of the company are typically outsourced, usually at a lower cost than it would take the organization to do the job itself. This allows the firm or institution to focus on what it does best. 12 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Outsourcing changes the terms of employment for professional as well as for loweruklllod workers. Many of these people are hired on contract and paid only for work performed, not for time spent on the job. This has an impact on work at every wage level and, generally, employers take less responsibility for the long-term security of their employees. the Focus on Customer Service Increased competition has also forced organizations to put more emphasis on customer service. The rigid hierarchical corporate structure where upper management, rather than front-line employees made decisions, created distance between the company and the customers buying its products and services. Organizations must now listen to what customers want and give it to them cheaply and efficiently because, if they don’t, someone else will. What competition has made necessary, technology makes possible. By taking care of ordering, accounting, processing and communication tasks, information technology has freed the corporation to concentrate on the customer. Computerization of these tasks frees up personnel for sales and marketing — the profil generating sides of the business. Corporations also realize that paying more attention to what their customers are saying requires giving more power to front-line employees who deal directly with customers. Again, technology makes it possible to give those front-line employees more information, flexibility and control so they can make decisions and solve problems. Implications of the Reorganization of Firms and Institutions Colm Campbell (1994) offers the following suggestions to job seekers: • Seek out companies that outsource all but their core area of expertise since those companies have the brightest competitive future and offer a greater chance for promotion. Don’t get stuck in a department that is likely to be outsourced. • On the flip side, with larger companies outsourcing, many jobs will emerge in small companies that provide services such as maintenance, marketing, computer systems control and consulting in a wide range of fields. Collectively, these companies are known as business services. • the emphasis on customer service is good news for people whose main strength is marketing and who may be wondering where they fit into a high-tech future. Hightech companies report special difficulty in recruiting technically competent people who also have marketing or sales abilities. And sales/marketing experience is often the fastest route to senior management. • Iook for employment in companies with close-knit teams that have committed management support. Labour Market Trends 13 Innovations in Technology: The Impact on Jobs Technology not only affects the way companies are organized, it also affects jobs in two ways: • Technology displaces some jobs; it creates others. For example, a millworker might be replaced with robotics, but the plant will require people to design, operate and maintain the technology. • Technology changes how work is actually done. For example, the verb to informate was coined to describe the way information technology inserts “data” in between the workers and the product. The factory worker no longer manipulates the sheet of steel; he or she manipulates the data used to control the equipment that manipulates the sheet of steel. Technology and Highly Skilled Jobs Innovations in technology have not only resulted in job losses for manual labour, but also for mental labour in middle management and the technical and artistic fields. William Bridges uses the not-too-distant example of the “smart card” (a card with an embedded programmable chip, already widely used in France and Japan) to illustrate the future job dislocation of middle managers in health care. What happens to jobs when similar cards — or enhanced ones, based on optical-disk technology — can be encoded with a whole medical history, the medication currently taken, the most recent blood pressure reading, the image of the last chest X-ray and all the details of a medical insurance policy? All that record keeping and file storage at the doctor’s office, the insurance company and the hospital will be unnecessary, and so will the jobs of the people who run those departments (1994, p. 13). Mental labour jobs at the technician level are also at risk. TV stations can now do all their studio filming with robotic cameras. Even though fewer technicians will be needed per set, the expected growth in television channels devoted to every type of merchandise, service or interest is expected to more than compensate. Even in the education and training field, a new computer technology called neural networks can monitor a student’s progress, notice a pattern to a student’s mistakes in thinking or problem solving and show the student other ways of mastering a skill. Technology and Clerical Work One area of work that will be severely affected by innovations in information technology is clerical work. Over 80 percent of clerical workers are women. In fact, 14 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information the most recent census shows that the three most common jobs for women remain in clerical, sales and service occupations. It is predicted that the job dislocation for women clerical workers in the 990s will be as significant as the dislocation that men in blue-collar jobs experienced in the 1980s. In fact, it will likely be more severe because women are so concentrated in clerical jobs whereas men are employed over a greater range of occupations. technology had its first impact on clerical workers in the 1980s. With the Introduction of personal computers, all workers were able to produce their own documents, memos and letters, thus eliminating many clerical jobs. the second wave of technology, in the form of electronic data interchange EDI, which is the computer-tocomputer exchange of information, is now positioned to move beyond the banking sector where it originated. William Bridges gives the following example to illustrate how a purchase order entered by a salesperson in his or her laptop computer in a customer’s office triggers a chain of “data” events throughout many departments and among several companies. As a result, lower people are needed to fill out, key In, Issue and file papers. Technology and Clerical Work Because many women still train for clerical work, the decline in middle skill level, traditional secretarial jobs is critical labour market information to pass on to clients. Women must appreciate that to gain the higher paying, semi-professional clerical jobs, they must develop: • strong technical skills, including advanced word processing, spreadsheet capabilities as well as a technology comfort level that allows utilization of other relevant business software programs; • basic analytical skills, that is, the ability to go beyond just gathering numbers and formatting reports to include interpreting and making recommendations based on the information; • communication skills; and • a willingness to accept responsibility. In today’s labour market where most job opportunities involve short-term or contract positions, clerical workers must also develop entrepreneurial/networking skills to market themselves on an ongoing basis. • In the purchasing department, no purchase order needs to be keyed in; a computer orders the necessary materials and components from the supplier. • At the suppliers, the orders are received, and a comparable chain of electronic events initiates the preparation and shipment of the order. An invoice is sent electronically. 2 Labour Market Trends 15 • In the factory, the product specifications are electronically coded into the computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) system, and the product is turned out by largely automated machinery. Technology and Retail Jobs Is home shopping the beginning of an irreversible trend, with specific TV channels devoted to selling every type of merchandise or service? While the current channels, with their zircons, skin creams and hair­ replacement products, may not look attractive to many consumers, technology and marketing support should eventually make home shopping a sophisticated, viable alternative to traditional retailing. Interactive highdefinition televisions will allow you to manipulate a product on screen, looking at it from different perspectives or zooming in to examine a detail. Most of us will still buy many items at the store but the new approach to shopping could save consumers money because it will cut out the wholesalers, distributors and retailers. As a result, many people in retail sales could find themselves out of a job. The number of people in delivery jobs who can provide speedy service, on the other hand, should increase. At higher skill levels, there will also be opportunities for consumer information consultants or brokers. • In accounting, payment is made electronically for the materials. • At a dozen other points along the production-delivery route, more data events take place. For instance, the salesperson’s electronic file calculates the commission due on the sale, the factory’s production records are updated and end-of-theyear bonuses are determined (1994, p. 11). Innovations in information technology, such as EDI, mean the elimination of many routine clerical jobs, such as those positions paying in the $25,000 to $30,000 range. These will be replaced by: • highly skilled information workers or executive assistants who are capable of combining basic analytical and managerial/professional duties with senior-level clerical functions. They will earn in the $35,000 to $45,000 a year range; and • lower-skilled clerical workers who perform routine functions, such as data entry, and will earn about $9.00 hourly, usually only on a part-time basis. SOURCE: Where the Jobs Are (Campbell, 1994, pp. 6-8). 16 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information technology and Service Sector Jobs it has generally been assumed that the jobs being eliminated in labour intensive manufacturing or natural resources would be replaced by new jobs in the service sector, but it is becoming Technology and Telecommuting clear that the service sector is just as susceptible to restructuring and job Technology, in the form of faxes and induction as manufacturing. Almost modems, enables a person to take on by definition, service jobs are jobs assignments and turn in work as that require a human touch. It has effectively from home as from the office. boon assumed that jobs in this And cellular phones and laptop ruminent of the economy would computers turn the salesperson’s car or remain secure because machines hotel room into an office. Because could never replace human beings. employers can save on real estate costs However, the human touch is not as and increase productivity by 10 to 35 essential as had been thought. percent by switching workers to People are willing to pump their own telecommuting, more companies are gas. and they will do their banking at hiring individuals who agree to work the automatic teller machine, 24 from home, at least part-time. hours a day. Workers can benefit as well. According Workers in traditional service sector to the B.C. Systems Corporation, the jobs that require a high school average telecommuter saves $1700 in education or less are among the expenses and reduces travel by 3000 hardest hit by technological changes. kilometres per year. However, it is for example, restaurants will soon usually only large employers who have laser cookers and information supply telecommuters with a company systems that allow customers to press computer for use at home. buttons to get a hamburger just the way they want. And more advanced robot cashiers are coming. Shoppers will simply run their groceries past an optical scanner and touch the screen command box to signal readiness to pay, which can be done by bank card or cash, Will change dispensed automatically. The robot cashier will even curb theft by detecting the exact weight of the scanned groceries and sounding a discreet alarm if a customer bags something without scanning it. As a result of such technology, many lower skilled service jobs will disappear, but the people with the computer skills to design and maintain the equipment will be in demand. while it is recognized that the real costs of technological change are felt most painfully by those who cannot adapt, higher-skilled service workers will also be affected impact of technology is likely to spread as competitive pressures penetrate The service industries and as governments deal with their debt crisis. Labour Market Trends Globalization Globalize means to “make worldwide in scope or application,” and the globalization of trade means freer and more intense worldwide trade across national borders. Technology helps to make globalization possible. Because computers can be interlinked across companies, countries and continents, information is no longer weighed down by geography or time. Job Migration and Technology With innovations in technology, jobs and employees can be located anywhere. Microsoft, the Seattle software giant, used to hire 153 of the 160 graduates from the top engineering schools in India and bring them to the United States to work. Now it hires the same number of graduates but has them remain in India. Data entry and processing jobs are migrating to lowwage countries, such as India, Ireland, Hungary and the Philippines, at an even faster rate, though eventually these jobs will be automated through the use of scanners (Campbell, 1994, p. 77). With globalization, Canada faces stiff competition for international markets. Increased competition has resulted from: • the new market-based economies of developing and former communist countries; • the introduction of new products and processes; • more efficient use of old materials; and • innovations in information technology. These forces have transformed markets that were once regarded as a reliable source of earnings. For example, in the past, Canada prospered from its natural resources. But as resources and world prices have declined, the global economy has challenged this advantage by demanding more innovation, higher product quality and increased productivity. It is gratifying to note, however, that firms in Canada’s resource sector that have upgraded their products, used technology skilfully, sought niche markets and revitalized their work forces have not only survived, but prospered. Even consumers have begun to “globalize.” With the relatively strong dollar of the late 1980s, Canadian consumers became more conscious of their shopping options and a greater share of their spending took place outside the country. Increased cross-border shopping forced Canadian retailers to offer longer business hours, higher quality products and better and friendlier service. Even though cross-border shopping has declined with the value of the dollar, the arrival of U.S.-based retailing giants, such as Wal-Mart, is continuing to force dramatic restructuring and shakeout in Canadian retailing. 18 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information GlOBALIZATION MEANS NEW MARKETS Canada is one of the world’s main trading nations. Canada’s wealth has been largely built on trade, which accounts for more than half of the gross domestic product, or almost triple the proportion in the United States. surprisingly, few Canadian firms engage directly in exporting. In 1992, only about percent of manufacturers made direct export sales, five firms accounted for 24 percent of all our exports, and 50 firms accounted for over 50 percent. Canadian firms have been successful in the United states, exports and merchandise trade balances have profited from the North Ammican Free Trade agreement (NAFTA). Trade success elsewhere has been dramatic For example, between 1983 and 1992, Asia accounted for 20 percent of the increase U.S. exports, but only six percent of the increase in Canadian exports. And, although Canada has traditionally had a merchandise trade surplus, this surplus has been increasingly whelming in recent years by a soaring non merchandise services trade deficit. Rapidly rising interestpayments on the foreign hold debt and a large determination in the travel/ tourism account are the main causes there are some ways Canada may benifit from expanding projects for example, infrastructure projects are always in progress in any rapidly developing country, so opportunities exist in the design in construction of electric power systems, water Chapter chapter Free Trade Free trade has been a hotly contested issue. Nevertheless, it is generally agreed that free trade in some form or another is inevitable. Sectors that have declined as a result of the Canada - U.S. Free Trade Agreement (FTA) were sunset industries such as clothing, furniture and various household products. These sectors were vulnerable over the long term regardless of any new trade agreements. And, the conclusion of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) talks may partially offset some of the unwanted aspects of the FTA or North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), because most U.S. restrictions will have to be liberalized. There is general consensus that the GATT agreement appears to benefit Canadian trade. Sectors expected to profit are: • fishing; • electronics; • construction equipment; • chemicals; • non-ferrous metals; • forest products; • telecommunications; • urban transit companies; • computer software; • management consulting; • engineering; • insurance; • banking; and • entertainment and cultural industries. 19 and waste facilities, telecommunications, subway systems and highways. Environmental technology will be needed in all developing countries before too long as will more sophisticated financial services. The emerging middle classes in Asia and Latin America have more money to buy consumer products. Implications of Globalization Canadian industries have adapted or restructured to compete in the global market. Many firms that upgraded their products, used technology skilfully, sought niche markets and revitalized their work forces are now prospering. But many others are in a state of collapse. Because Canada is still in the middle of the adaptation process, Judith Maxwell, former director of the Economic Council of Canada, says it is hard to figure out what the outcome will be and concludes that the painful adjustments of the 1980s are far from over. However, free trade offers expanded markets to Canada and this means job seekers should look for work in a growth export industry located in an area that actively seeks to attract and support export businesses. Colin Campbell (1994) offers two other suggestions: • Seek work in a company that is expanding beyond Canada, since it will have many career growth opportunities worth pursuing. • Leave the country for work in one of the expanding world economies. According to a survey of 200 exporters by the Canadian Labour Market and Productivity Centre, many Canadian firms report hiring difficulties — most severe in the areas of professional and sales staff. Close to half of the respondents reported that such difficulties have a negative impact on production and exports. Half of the respondents reported unfilled vacancies due to qualification problems mainly in export management, computers and technical skills. To a lesser degree, marketing, languages and literacy created problems in filling vacancies (Lortie, 1991). The trend to global marketing and the higher skill levels demanded of workers in export industries have created a labour force gap. Practitioners might guide those interested in entrepreneurial occupations to specialize in: • global entrepreneurship; • international marketing; • international trade finance; • international physical distribution; • international trade research; • legal aspects of international trade; • international trade management; and • the North American and other trade agreements. Note, however, that the above are all areas where higher levels of education and specialization are needed in order to succeed. Opportunities for lower-skilled 20 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information workers are available in small companies that provide services to firms in the export not for such as maintenance, marketing or computer services. Compete to Win: A Strategy for Global Competition by the Canadian Manufacturers Association A demonstration of how one organization is dealing with the global competition trend is I he Canadian Manufacturers Association’s innovative training program complete to Win.” It was designed as a state-of-the-art practical leadership curriculum to meet the key supervisory development needs of Canadian manifactures. the company which did the survey to develop the course, Gilmore & Associates, talks about the future role of the supervisor. “Expectations are that supervisors will become more proactive, have a longer-term and broader perspective of the organization, the customer and the marketplace. As organizations become flatter and decision making gets pushed further down in organizations, supervisors will the expected to make more decisions and more difficult decisions, as well as help their employees to make decisions. Supervisors will need to be given decisionmaking authority where they do not have that authority today” (p. 71). from the the research to create the course, they found that while an individual must be technically competent in his or her particular field, the future will demand certain generic supervisory skills to help the company move into the highly competitive, global market. skills Required in the Future Knowledge Required Manager technological change relate to company values be creative I take calculated risks Be a conceptual thinker Manage stress • Understanding people • General business knowledge • Labour and government regulations • Understanding the total organization • General knowledge about computers • Technical knowledge source-complete to Win Research Report, Gilmore & Associates, 1990. chapter 2 Market Trends General Trends in Canadian Business Partnerships • Efficiency - cost-saving and labour-saving. • Competitiveness - there is an increased tendency for Canadian industries to join together to share information and resources to compete with international industries — companies, such as Hewlett Packard, IBM and ICI (formerly CIL), hold seminars to train their suppliers and customers on Total Quality Management methods; nine telephone companies across Canada formed an alliance, Stentor, to help them compete in the same international market as giants such as AT&T, British Telecom and Nippon Telephone Telegraph. Training Initiatives • Multi-skilling, learning to do several jobs to accommodate downsizing. • Re-training every three to five years to keep up with technological changes. • Managers helping workers plan their careers independent of the organization. • More adult students as the number of young labour force entrants cannot fill the employment needs. • Training the trainers to keep their students up-to-date. • National standards for certification across all industries to enable mobility. • Combination of creative and technical skills, of agricultural and business knowledge, of business and technical skills to accommodate rapid technology developments, vast increases in knowledge bases, need to compete internationally. Structure • Flatter organizational structure. • Learning new skills to get a pay increase and more challenging assignments but fewer vertical promotions. • Downsizing. • Globally competitive. Less Job Security • More people working part-time. • More multiple job holders. • More people self-employed. • Increase in home-based businesses. 22 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information the SHIFT TO NON-STANDARD EMPLOYMENT it is a involution, a revolution for sure. It is not just a matter of a few bloated corporations trimming jobs. It is a new way of doing business and organizing work that spells the end of secure, long-term employment for practically everybody. An unwritten covenant between employers and employees is being annulled (Fritz Williams, quoted in Curriculum: New Work fora New generation, Detroit Educational Television Foundation, p. 16). in their report to the federal government, the Advisory Group on Working Time and the distribution of Work comments: the paradox of our times is that many Canadians today work long hours while many others have no work at all. Increasingly, people who want fulltime. permanent employment have to settle for part-time, temporary or seasonal work. This form of “underemployment” is as troubling as unemployment, since more and more people are relying on these nonstandard or contingent jobs (1994, p. 15). jobs can be defined as standard and non-standard. Standard jobs are those that are lull lime, full-year with a single employer. They usually offer benefits and some career prospects. The usual employer is a large firm or government. Just over half of Canadian workers still hold standard jobs. part time, contract and temporary-help agency work are examples of non-standard employment. Non-standard employment also includes own-account self•employment, which is the selling of goods or services by people who do not employ workers* themselves. while mere full-time jobs were created in 1994 than part-time ones, almost half (46 percent) of the 3.5 million jobs created in Canada between 1975 and 1993 came from part time jobs. By 1993, nearly one quarter of all jobs in Canada provided less than 30 hours of work per week compared to 14 percent in 1975. another indicator of the trend to nonstandard employment is the higher the last decade into of self-employment. Over the last decade, self-employment has grown twice as fast as regular employment, as many companies and governments have contracted out service* that used to be provided inhouse by workers in standard jobs. self employment seems to have grown particularly last among older workers: •approximately four in 10 are 45 years Labour Market Trends The Current State of the Labour Market • More jobs are part-time. • More women are balancing paid work with work in the home. • More people are self-employed. • More workplaces are getting by with lower staffing levels. • Both paid and unpaid overtime work are on the increase. 23 Just-in-Time Work Force Employers are now reluctant to commit themselves to full-time, full-year “permanent” employees and prefer to get workers — from clerical staff to sophisticated consultants — on a project-by-project basis. Flexibility is a key issue. Without the long-term commitment and salary burden of an extensive full-time work force, companies are more agile because part-time workers’ hours of work can be easily changed and “temps” work just as long as required. Just-in-time production has become just-in-time work forces. For example, if a company starts making a new product, all aspects of the launch — such as sales, marketing and telemarketing — can be handled by a temporary work force. If a cross-country road show is planned, a temporary staff can be assembled in each city. The president of the Federation of Temporary Help Services in Canada says, “We don’t even call it temporary any more — it’s a flexible work force” (Bacigalupo, 1994). or older. However, the Federal Business Development Bank reports that one quarter of Canada’s one million small businesses are owned and operated by people aged 18 to 29. It seems that energy and enthusiasm edge out experience as a prerequisite for successful entrepreneurship. Paid jobs (that is, where an employee receives a wage or salary from an employer) nevertheless, continue to predominate. Excluding farmers and fishers, fewer than one tenth of working Canadians are selfemployed. Among the sectors with significant levels of self-employment are business services and construction (both with one in five workers self-employed) followed by transportation, trade, and insurance and real estate agencies (all with one in 10 workers self-employed). While some of the increase in non­ standard employment (see Figure 3) is cyclical— that is, related to recessions and/or weak economic growth — deeper structural forces are also causing this permanent shift in how work is being done. The growth in non-standard employment has resulted from several interrelated structural factors. • The shift from a goods-producing to a service economy: Retail, tourism, entertainment and personal service industries have grown in terms of their share of the total labour force, and these sectors have the highest concentrations of part-time work. • New forms of business organization: The growth in small-size businesses and contracting out by firms means more short-term employment. 24 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Non-Standard Employment as a Proportion of Total Employment, 1991 Canada part time employment data refer to annual averages. II as a percent of paid workers (i.e., excluding self-employed and paid workers). III unincorporated business only. source statistics Canada, Historical Labour Force Statistics, Catalogue 71-201 Annual; Labour Force Annual Average, catalogue 71 220 Annual; Work Arrangements, Catalogue 71-535, No. 6. labour Market Trends 25 Work-Time Practices Increasingly, employees want flexible hours — working from eight to four, for example, instead of from nine to five. Some prefer compressed working hours, by which it is possible, for instance, to take off every second Friday by working longer hours over the preceding nine days. And some, though by no means all, working people would like to consider such options as the four-day week, or extended vacations, or temporary part-time status, even if it means some reduction of income. These changing attitudes are likely to have a growing impact on work-time practices. Recently, there has been considerable public discussion in Canada and elsewhere about the desirability of the four-day week. It has been seen as a major social transition — comparable to the historical shift to the eight-hour day and the five-day week — that could both create jobs for the unemployed and improve the quality of life for those currently employed. If the four-day week were to occur in Canada, it would most likely be the result of successful examples and changes made through collective bargaining, not because of legislation. The best known Canadian example of the four-day week, at Bell Canada, was a negotiated agreement to reduce hours as an alternative to layoffs. The one-year agreement, signed in December 1993 between Bell and its major union, the Communications Energy and Paperworkers Union (CEP), followed rejection of a joint application to the Unemployment Insurance Commission for support for a work-sharing program. The union and the company subsequently agreed that, in place of the standard eight-hour day, five-day week, hours would be reduced, which meant some reductions in pay in place of layoffs. The agreement also restricted use of outside contractors. While the initial Bell-CEP agreement called for mandatory unpaid days off (the most unpopular part, among Bell’s workers), a recovery in business has meant that it now involves a much smaller reduction in hours and pay. Bell technical and other staff may now work four nine-hour days per week, which results in the loss of just two hours of pay per week. One of the most significant lessons from the experience is that negotiated work-sharing agreements can be an alternative to layoffs. Most important, perhaps, is the fact that some workers will be willing to trade at least some pay for a reduced work week. Very few of those on the fourday week have switched back to five days in order to obtain two hours more paid work per week, although this option is now available to them. SOURCE: Report on Working Time and the Distribution of Work. (Advisory Group on Working Time and the Distribution of Work, Human Resources Development Canada, 1994.) 26 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information • Increased competition in both domestic and foreign markets: Increased competition puts pressure on employers to lower their costs, including wage costs Workers with non-standard jobs do not usually participate in pension and benefits plans, which can add 25 to 30 percent to the bill for wages. If should be noted that not all non-standard jobs are “bad” jobs. Some part-time jobs provide good pay and benefits, as well as stable employment and prospects for advancement. They are preferred by many working mothers, students and highly paid consultants. However, many non-standard jobs do not provide individuals with predictable hours or a predictable income. In his book Job Shift, William Bridges (1994) coined the phrase “dejobbing” to describes this trend to non-standard employment. He says that workers are going to be more like independent business people (or one-person businesses) than conventional employees. They are likely to work for more than one client at a time and to move back and forth across organizational boundaries — being employed full time lor a period of time, then hired to do contract work, then hired to consult, and then brought back in-house (perhaps part-time this time) on a long-term assignment. He concludes that, although there will always be enormous amounts of work to do in our economy, the work will not be contained in that old familiar employment form of standard full-time, full-year jobs. NON stANDARD EMPLOYMENT AND SMES As outlined in the section on globalization and technology, small- and medium-sized companies (SMEs) are the creators of employment in Canada. This is an important point because rapidly growing companies have a great deal of work that needs to be done. but they offer fewer and fewer traditional jobs to get that work done. globally competitive organizations use a change-driven style of operation that requires flexibility and speedy responses to keep up with changes in the marketplace. Because conventional jobs inhibit flexibility and speedy response to the marketplace, many organizations are turning over even their most important tasks to temporary and contract workers. It is important to emphasize that the members of what is coming to be called the contingent or just-in-time work force are not just clerical or assembly-line workers. Temporary hires do sophisticated electrical engineering, and they work as senior benifits analysts, lawyers and accountants. Even in the traditional professions of health and education, and in government service, where job security has been paramount there have been reduced work weeks and layoffs. / about Market Trends 27 Charles Handy’s “Shamrock Organization” The British management scholar, Charles Handy, predicts that all competitive firms and institutions of the future will have three types of workers. Handy uses the term “shamrock organization” to describe the organizational structure he envisions, with each type of worker representing one of the leaves in a shamrock. The first leaf of the shamrock is made up of the professional core. It consists of professionals, technicians and managers who possess the skills that represent the organization’s core competence. Their pay is tied to organizational performance, and their relations will be more like those among the partners in a professional firm than those among superiors and subordinates in today’s large corporation. 4» The next leaf is made up of self-employed professionals or technicians or smaller specialized organizations who are hired on contract, on a project-byproject basis. They are paid in fees for results rather than in salary for time. They frequently telecommute. No benefits are paid by the core organization, and the worker carries the risk of insecurity. 4» The third leaf comprises the contingent work force, where there is no career track and often routine jobs. These are usually part-time workers who will experience short periods of employment and long periods of unemployment. They are paid by the hour or day or week for the time they work (Handy, 1992, p. 153). Even Standard Jobs are Changing Not only are there fewer standard jobs, but those that remain are changing. Downsized companies must change and add new responsibilities to the jobs that remain. That is, people working within organizations in standard jobs will do so under conditions too fluid to be called “jobs” in the old sense. For example, William Bridges (1994) describes what it’s like to work at Microsoft, the Seattle software giant. • There are no regular hours. Buildings are open to workers 24 hours a day. • People work anytime and all the time, with no one keeping track of their hours, but with everyone watching their output. • Workers are accountable not to conventional managers but to the project teams of which they are a part. 28 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information • within each team, individuals are always given a little more than they can accomplish on their own, so there is constant collaboration among team members. » Al regular team meetings, workers stand before the team to explain what they have contributed to the project lately, so it doesn’t take long to straighten out a team member who isn’t performing. • I iocause workers are not protected by the boundaries of a job, normal and satisfactory come to be synonyms for substandard, Microsoft employees are expected to work beyond the limits that any job could set for them. • Many projects include round-the-clock periods of work, with many workers overextending themselves and experiencing anger and burn out. Burnout is not an unusual outcome at the end of a major new software development project Bridges notes that John Sculley, ex-CEO of Apple Computers once estimated that a third of the people on a new-product development team quit the company for six months or more after the product had been launched. Most of them eventually returned to the company, however. Bridges comments that the pattern of “alternate bouts of intense labour and of idleness" is similar to work patterns among 19th century English artisans who had not yet given in to the demands of an industrial job. In fact, he goes to great lengths to remind us us that “the job” is a social artifact, not a timeless fact of human existence. THe First Great Job Shift jobs and the present employer-based system have not always existed. They are a products of the industrial age and only about 200 years old. Before that most people farmers and were self-employed. Bridges gives a quick review of what he calls the first great job shift, because, as he sees it, “the same kinds of economic forces were at work, the same kinds of distress were generated, and people — then as today polarized into those who were excited by the possibilities and those who appalled by the costs” (1994, p. 32). At the time, many did not believe that ordinary people could ever make the change because, as historian E.P. Thompson (1967) has written, it “entailed a severe restructuring of working habits — new disciplines, new incentives, and a new human nature upon which these incentives could bite effectively.” Bridges (1994, p. 6) concludes that once again people have come to a turning point at which the assumptions about living and working are being challenged. Labour Market Trends 29 From Village to Factory • In England the old rules (village customs and the common law) and the new rules (industrial practices and statute law) overlapped for a half century between 1780 and 1830. Almost everyone felt distress during this change over from the old world of the village to the new world of the factory. • Working for wages was a precarious existence. People had always provided as much of their own food and clothing as they could and worked at (old-style) jobs for money to meet their extra or special needs. Once those needs were met, pre-industrial people slipped back into subsistence until new needs arose. The idea of working constantly for wages and then using that money to purchase everything one needed, and the idea of continuing to work, even after essentials were provided for, to accumulate savings to buy a house or provide for old age were totally new concepts. • Many of the most sensitive writers and artists of that period denounced the factories and the cities that sprawled out around them. Charles Dickens portrayed a long line of harsh and heartless employers who cared more about the job than the person who filled it. Implications of the Shift to Non-standard Employment Canadian workers face significantly different prospects than they did a generation ago. William Bridges (1994) says workers in a “contingent” labour market should change their mind set to: • Acknowledge that just as workers will need to be ready to shift from project to project within the same company, they should also expect that, much more frequently than in the past, they will have to move from one organization to another. Long-term employment is, for most workers, a thing of the past. There are, however, alternate work arrangements that can offer more employment opportunities with reduced hours (see the box in this section on Work-Time Practices). • Recognize the increased competition companies face. Workers need to regard themselves as people whose value to the organization must be demonstrated in each successive situation they find themselves in. • Acknowledge that even though government and perhaps employers will do their part in providing information and training to workers in transition, ultimately, individuals must manage transitions in their own careers and lives. 30 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information although an in-depth discussion of the social and psychological implications of nonstandard employment are beyond the scope of this book, it is noteworthy that the trend to non standard employment has reversed the playing field for some members of the labour force. people who were most successful in a secure, standard employment situation are going have a difficult time adjusting their job-seeking skills and employment attitudes to the new order. On the other hand, many workers such as visible minorities, women, aboriginals and people with disabilities, have already accommodated to non-standard employment situations, whether by choice or necessity Those who have already adapted to these emerging work structures may thus have a subtle advantage by virtue of the new trend (Bridges, 1994). The Changing Job Market Past Present Future Employee cradle to grave uncertainty due to mergers and layoffs small group of core employees career growth upward mobility mobility through job hopping sideways advancement markets individual company dealing locally, nationally nationally formed “strategic alliances” in trade zones, long-term commitments “virtual corporations” a number of international, cross-industry companies coming together for a specific contract, then dissolving source Rob Notman, President Murray Axmith (Ottawa) Ltd. Labour Market Trends 31 C. INDUSTRIAL SHIFTS This section examines the implications of industrial and occupational shifts for career planning. It is useful to begin by making clear the distinction between industries and occupations. A useful way to think about the distinction between occupation and industry is that an occupation is what a person does and an industry is where a person performs that occupation. Nursing is the kind of work (occupation) a nurse does, but he or she can perform that work in the health care industry (hospital surgical nurse) or in the education sector (school nurse) or in forestry (occupational health and safety nurse). Note: industry and sector are used interchangeably. How Occupations and Industries Are Classified An occupation is defined by its function — the kind of work performed. Occupations are classified in the National Occupational Classification (NOC), which is presented in detail in Chapter 3. An industry is defined by the kind of production (goods or service) an organization is involved in. Industries are classified in the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC). Appendix E shows the 18 industry divisions and 76 major industry groups of the SIC. Industries are divided into two groups, those that produce goods and those that provide services, as illustrated below. INDUSTRY GROUPINGS Goods-Producing Manufacturing Mining Construction Agriculture Forestry Fishing Service-Producing Transportation, communication and utilities Trade Health, social and educational services Finance, insurance and real estate Government services Business and retail services Accommodation, food and beverage services The landmark 1990 report of the Economic Council of Canada, Good Jobs, Bad Jobs, gave us a more effective way of looking at the range of service sectors that make up the service industry. It is worthwhile to be familiar with this classification and its categories because they are cited in many reports. • 32 Dynamic service industries include the more knowledge-intensive or high-tech services, such as telecommunications and business services. Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information • Traditional services refer to services directed toward meeting the needs of consumers, such as retail trade, personal services and tourism. • Non-market services include health, education and government. The Structure of the Service Sector1 Dynamic Services Transportation, communications and utilities Air, rail and water transport (bound transportation Pipelines Storage and warehousing broadcasting — radio, television and cable telephone systems Postal and courier services Utilities — electricity, gas, water and sewage systems Wholesale trade finance insurance and real estate Banks and trust companies Credit unions and mortgage companies Insurance companies Investment dealers Real estate operators Business services Employment agencies Advertising services Architectural, scientific, engineering and computing services Legal services Management consulting Traditional Services retail trade food stores Drug stores and liquor stores shoe and clothing stores furniture, appliance, furnishings and stereo shops ( car dealers, gas stations and auto repair shops development stores Jewellery stores and photographic stores personal Services hotels restaurant and bars Film, audio, and video production and distribution Movie houses and theatres Barber and beauty shops Laundries and cleaners Funeral services Machinery and car rental companies Photographers Repair shops (excluding auto) Building security services Travel agencies Non-market Services Education services Schools, colleges and universities libraries, museums and archives health services hospitals Nursing homes Doctors and dentists Medical laboratories Social services Daycare, meal services and crisis centres Psychologists and social workers Religious organizations Public Administration for data related reasons, this classification scheme has been organized within the framework of statistics Canada’s Standard Industrial Classification. source: Statistics Canada, 1991a. Labour Market Trends 33 There are occupations which are specific to an industry, such as miner to mining, but there are also many occupations found in all industry sectors, such as clerical occupations. Perhaps the biggest confusion about the industry/occupation distinction concerns service occupations versus service industries. Workers in service occupations are not necessarily employed in the service sector. Cooks also find employment in logging camps, and sales representatives work for manufacturing firms. But usually, workers in service occupytions (such as cooks) work in a service industry (such as tourism). (Tourism includes the accommoda­ tion, food, recreation and selected transportation sectors.) Because industries provide information on where an occupation can be found, knowing which industries are growing can help to increase the chances of a faster, successful job search by concentrating on those industries which offer the best opportunities for employment. The growth in the computer software industry for example, means a secretary, warehouse shipper or accountant would likely have a better chance of finding work at such a company than finding work in the mining or government sectors. Knowing about the growth of industries can also help in predicting which jobs will offer the best long­ term prospects. Although all industries hire workers in finance, clerical, sales and administrative occupations, computer software firms 34 Four Areas of Growth in the New Economy Computers/Semiconductors • microwaves • intercom systems • stereos, CD players, VCRs, TVs • watches, clock radios • thermostats • tape decks • security systems • garage doors • telephones, fax machines Health and Medical • pharmaceuticals • diagnostic chemicals • artificially reproduced genes • special case hospitals • clinics • nursing homes • medical instrumentation and equipment Communications and Telecommunications • entertainment • cable TV and radio broadcasting • telephones, fax machines and video equipment • electronic theme parks • video games • virtual reality Instrumentation • surgical instruments • robotics • computer controls • laser technology • environmental monitoring SOURCE: Shifting Gears (Beck, 1992). Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information hire mostly computer specialists and environmental protection companies hire mostly scientists and technicians. The higher-than-average projected growth rates for those sectors indicates good employment prospects for computer and other scientists /technicians. the advice of Nuala Beck, author of Shifting Gears: Thriving in the New Economy, 1992 is to find work in a new-economy industry. Almost all the growth industries in the new economy are technologically based. Information and technology typify neweconomy industries, so knowledge workers, such as medical technologists, materials scientists, broadcast engineers and paralegals, will be in demand. the Home-Based Business Trend the growth of the service industry has also encouraged the home-based business trend. Technological advances make it easy to work at home, at the same time telecommuting reduces staff turnover and saves on office rental. The biggest area is in consulting. In spite of the disadvantage of isolation, home-based business is a trend likely to continue as new service needs continue to emerge and job security continues to decline Beck cites four strong areas of growth in North America: computers/ semiconductors, health/medical, communications/telecommunications and instrumentation. Beck estimates that 70 percent of Canadians are already employed in these industries and that Canada is strong in two of the four areas of growth: telecommunications and the health/medical industry. Disruption exists even in parts of the economy that have good prospects. Despite the growth of new economy firms, there have been layoffs at such firms as Northern Telecom and Xerox Canada Knowledge workers are now more likely than in past years to lose the jobs they have but it is generally agreed that knowledge workers have a better chance than workers; in many other sectors of the economy of finding new jobs. Focus on the Service Sector although the economy is undergoing disruptive changes on many fronts, one trend continuously threads its way through the changes, that is, the overtaking of the goods producing sector by the service industry. “Since the beginning of the century, the number of people working has grown more rapidly in the service sectorthan the goods-producing sector,” says Statistics Canada (1991a). It goes on to say that in 1911one in three persons was employed in the service sector while, in 1991, more then two out of three were in that sector. the proportions of the national work force directly employed in the goods sector has fallen because of weak demand, substantial increases in productivity due to technology and to some degree, because of the loss of labour-intensive manufacturing industries to other countries. The changing needs of society are also labour market Trends 35 responsible for the shift of employment to the service sector. Increases in the disposable incomes of some groups and the increased participation of women in the paid labour force has resulted in the need for services that replace some of the unpaid work these women did in the home. The fastest growth rates in services are expected in sectors that base their services on: • demographic shifts, e.g., health care, tourism, recreation; • high-technology areas such as environmental protection; • computer software design and applications; and • telecommunications. One point that emerges from all the studies on employment in the service industries is that these jobs tend to be either high or low skilled. Unlike the goods sector, service industries have less middle-level skill requirements. Converting employment growth rates into the actual number of future job openings shows there will be many more job openings in the low-skilled, traditional services (e.g., food and accommodation) and non-market (e.g., home care) sectors, than in the better paying high-skilled jobs in dynamic services (e.g., engineering or computer software firms). (Despite their classification as low-skilled, many of these jobs in the service sector actually require higher literacy levels than did the low- or medium-skilled goods sector jobs that have disappeared.) Many people think of jobs in the traditional services sector as a stop-gap to see them through until they “get a real job.” Indeed, a recent Tourism Canada study concludes that many of these jobs may not be of high quality or provide adequate compensation for those supporting families. Nevertheless, such jobs do offer work to people who have been unemployed, and for the young unemployed in particular, tourism jobs offer a way back into the employed labour force. Despite the comparative low pay of tourism jobs, it should be noted that, with the right attitude and with ongoing training, upward movement within the industry can be rapid, opportunities to start your own business are excellent and most of the job skills developed are transferable to other fields. Labour Force Survey Profile on Services The Statistics Canada Labour Force Survey allowed further examination of the service-sector growth phenomenon from 1976 to 1991. It found overall employment growth in the sector during this period to be 30 percent — more than the growth in the working age population. A change in the composition of the work force became evident. There was an increase in participation of women over the age of 25, and there were more youth working part-time. A second and third trend emerged — the growth of self-employed and multiple job holders outpaced total employment growth during this period. Most of the rise in multiple job holders was among persons 36 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information whose primary job was in services. Growth of the self-employed contributed the most to the overall increase in employment in the service sector. the provalence of self-employment increases with age, possibly because of experience resources and skills that older workers have to build on combined with the increasing number of older workers and the pressure for early retirement and corporate downsizing. the service sector embraces a wide variety of occupations: • from clerical, such as library clerk, to financial, such as auditors; • from professional applied science, such as urban planner, to applied science technicians, such as construction inspector; from professional health occupations, such as optometrist, to health technicians, such as pathologist’s assistant; • from social science, government, education and religion, such as teacher and lawyer, to para-professionals, such as legal assistant and early childhood educator; • from professions in art and Employment Growth in the Service culture, such as editor and sector dancer, to technicians, such as photographer and coach; five groups in the service sector made and up 69 percent of the employment growth • from skilled sales and service, from 1976 to 1991: such as insurance agent and service to business management; baker, to elemental sales and health and social services; service, such as cashier and •retail trade security guard. • food and accommodation; and finance, insurance and real estate. Implications of Industrial Shifts • Job seekers should consider work in a growth or new-economy industry because firms in these industries require secretaries, accountants, shipping and warehouse personnel as well as specialist workers. Reading the business section of the local newspaper to see specialist workers are expanding will point to those industries that are part of the new economy in a community. On Average in the service industry, 5.1 percent of workers were multiple jobs holders;. in 1991, compared to 2.2 percent in 1976. orkers who do not have specific, marketable skills in high-skilled, highworkers jobs will have to consider traditional service jobs as “real jobs” in which to build a permanent career. Low-skill, high-paying jobs in the goods sector are disapearing chapter labour Market Trends 37 D. THE IMPACT OF DEMOGRAPHIC CHANGE Demographics are a key factor in shaping Canada’s economic life. The growth and structure of the population determine the demand for private consumption and the key commodities and services within a given environment. Demographics also determine prospects for major public expenditures, especially health care and education (COPS LM Outlook, 1992). Changing demographics affect the labour market in two ways: • in the occupations required and employment opportunities available to workers; and • by altering the composition, such as age and ethnic distribution, of the labour force. The effects of demographics on the demand for workers and the supply of workers is demonstrated in Figure 4. 38 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Figure 4 Labour Market Dynamics Some Factors Contributing to Supply and Demand labour Market Trends 39 The Impact of Demographics on Employment Employment opportunities in the form of key commodities and services can be defined by the needs of certain demographic groups in Canada. One of the more outstanding differences in the needs of demographic groups occurs across generations. David Foot, a University of Toronto economist, specializes in the economic implications of generational differences. Some of Foot’s ideas about the generations and their economic needs were discussed in a series of newspaper articles in the Vancouver Sun (January 21-24, 1994). The next textbox gives a description of the major generational divisions in the population that were examined in the series. The Baby Boomer generation is the largest and their needs have created a very large market for goods and services. However, as Foot’s articles went on to explain one group that has been overlooked will offer unprecedented opportunities for companies that can offer particular goods and services to the group over the next 30 years. This group is called the Blessed Ones. They are a valuable niche market because they have money to spend. 40 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information The Demographic Ladder golden OLDIES: Ages: 66+, population: 3.6 million. : survived two world wars and a depression to make it to retirement. Today, some never had it so good, but some, such as elderly widows, scrimp to get by. the BLESSED ONES: Ages 49 to 65, population: 4.3 million. born lucky. A small cohort; no competition in the job market; couldn't help but make it. In the 1950s and 1960s real wages rose by over 30 percent and unemployment never went over seven percent. Housing prices, mortgage rates and levels of indebtedness remained enviably low compared with today’s levels. baby BOOMERS: Ages 29 to 48, population 9.8 million. the defining demographic cohort of Canadian life, the baby boom is actually two phases: First phase, ages 36 to 48, population 5.6 million. The Woodstock generation. Made it to the job market before Generation X, but the competition resulting from their sheer numbers forced them to embrace the world of debt. Second phase, ages 29 to 35, population 4.2 million. Generation X. Demographic ally cursed. Spotty employment opportunities. Often found in basement apartments. baby BUSTERS: Ages 16 to 28, population 5.3 million. the wake of the baby boom crest. Like to paint themselves as disaffected. Face roomier job market as they grow older. Those McJobs will eventually turn into something meatier. baby boom ECHO: Ages 1 to 15, population 6 million. relatively high numbers will make competition for jobs stiff. sources talkin ’bout My Generation” series, Vancouver Sun newspaper, January 21 -24, 1994 the numbers cited are from Statistics Canada’s 1993 population survey. currently those aged 50 to 64 years control 45 percent of total personal wealth in Canada have incidences valued in excess of $230 billion and have a net worth amounting to $550 billion. They are at their peak income-earning power and, with minimal morgages or paid off, their household expenses are low. Marketing specialist refer to as “woopies,” or well-off older people. Woopies are sophisticated shoppers who are willing to spend, but with the emphasis on value, chapter 2 Labour Market Trends 41 not conspicuous consumption. What are well-off older people likely to want and need? • RRSPs and mutual funds, estate planning. • Condominiums/townhouses or renovations of existing homes to accommodate disabled or aging occupants: There is already a new specialty within interior design and architecture for “refitting” homes to make them user-friendly to elderly people. • Convenience services: People over 50 eat out three times a week on average. • Residential services: Renovation, landscaping, maintenance and security of homes. • Health care: Optometry, pharmacy, chiropractic. • Travel and recreation: The mature market wants unique travel experiences that stress historical, educational or cultural elements. • Cars: They purchase 43 percent of the new domestic cars and 48 percent of the luxury cars. • Continuing education classes related to crafts and hobbies. The other generational groups will also provide business with opportunities to meet their needs and wants. However, the chair of the Retail Merchants’ Association of B.C. says aging Baby Boomers are becoming far more cautious about spending money on almost all goods and services. They have more responsibilities now and they are feeling less secure about their future. He warns that “consumption is never going to go back to the way it was in the mid-1980s” ( Vancouver Sun, January 1994). We can predict, however, that the needs of Baby Boomers will continue to have a strong influence on the demand for goods and services: • Boomers are starting to pursue less strenuous leisure activities. For example, golf is increasingly popular while hockey, tennis, squash and downhill skiing are declining — which, according to David Foot is why the only growth in skiing is in snowboarding (a younger person’s sport). He says the real growth sport for the future: bird watching. • Boomers already have homes, so they will spend on high-tech home entertainment and educational information technology for their kids. 42 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information •Demand for convenience items/services will increase. If you can save Boomers time or money, the product or service is likely to succeed. • Health and personal care items with the emphasis on prevention and holistic or alternative forms of medicine, will be popular. • Financial planning services will be in demand. for the Baby Boom Echo, opportunities in the children’s market, including clothing, toys, music and books will continue with these children as they grow. the needs of the Golden Oldies will continue to centre on home and health care. Labour Market Trends 43 Profile: An Aging Population and Health Care Canada’s population will undergo considerable aging as it moves into the 21st century says Statistics Canada. The main cause is a low fertility rate. Under its medium growth scenario, by 2016 Canada’s population will rise to 37 million from 29 million. Further, by 2016 half the population will be over 40, and 16 percent will be over age 65, up from the current 12 percent, a proportion that will increase to almost one quarter by 2041. Over the same time, the proportion under 15 will shrink to 19 percent from the current 25 percent. Health care is a growing need shared by the Blessed Ones, the older Baby Boomers, and especially the Golden Oldies. Not surprisingly, employment projections for health care occupations show long-term growth. It is inevitable for an aging population such as ours. Nevertheless, hospital closures and reduced government spending on health care are resulting in layoffs throughout the sector. Health care is one of the service industries most affected by government policies. In today’s economy the aim of all governments is to reduce spending. While innovations in medical technology are generally seen as increasing the staffing requirements because many of the technologies are complementary to existing ones, continued attempts to control spending on health care make uncertain the entry/timing of high-tech equipment into the public health system. What is a certainty in health care — and already occurring — is fewer critical care beds in government hospitals and the move to more private companies to deliver home and community care. Health care workers have lost their jobs during this transition, and restructuring of health care and more layoffs are expected in the next few years. However, in the long term, health care that can be provided cost effectively to an aging population — chronic care, rehabilitation, gerontology — will offer many opportunities. Cultural Diversity Another change to consider with regard to potential products and services is the increase in Canada’s population of visible minorities and immigrants. Ethnic diversity leads to a growth of related industries, such as language and immigrant services, (although these services are vulnerable to cuts in government spending) and market products and services. For example, Macleans is test marketing an all­ Chinese edition of its news magazine for Canada’s half-million Chinese people living at home or abroad. 44 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Impact of Demographics on the Composition of the Labour Force There are a wide variety of demographic factors that influence the composition of the labour force. Various combinations of age, gender and immigration in the population can cause subtle or sharp shifts in the composition of the labour force. other agents of change such as labour laws and equity legislation will also contribute to shaping the labour force. labour Market Supply the supply of workers to fill the jobs in the labour market (labour supply) can be directly related to three factors. • Birth rate. Canada’s birth rate is below replacement level. • Labour force growth. Canada’s population is aging, and both the rate and the absolute level of increase in the labour force will slow over the 1990s (see figure 5). • Hate of immigration. Gaps in the labour supply are often filled by workers from other countries. Immigration can minimize the population decline, but cannot realistically offset the shifting age structure of Canadian society. Gender the gender composition of the labour force has a major impact on labour supply. production show that, while the aggregate labour force participation rate will grow gradually, the rates for men will decline and the rates for women will continue to rise In fact, almost two thirds of the total labour force growth will result from the increased participation of women, especially those in the 35-to-54 age group. By the year 2000, 47 percent of the labour force will be women, compared to 27 percent in 1961 and 61 percent of all women will be at work or looking for a job. The gender of the work force members can influence the number of part-time workers and absences depending on family status and culture (see Figure 6). age the average age of the labour force will rise from 32 in 1971, to 37 in 1990 to 39 in 2000 total labour force is expected to grow by 15 percent in the 1990s, while the participation of those aged 35 to 44 will grow by 30 percent and those aged 45 54 by 55 percent (see Figure 7). immigration historically, Canada relied on an abundant supply of highly skilled immigrants, primarily from European countries of origin, to meet its labour needs. Thirty years ago more than 80 percent of Canada’s immigrants came from Europe or European heritage countries, whereas 70 percent now come from Asia, Africa and Latin america today, the majority of immigrants from Canada’s new source countries do not have English or French language ability and many, especially those admitted on Labour Market Trends 45 humanitarian grounds, arrive without the educational or technical skills needed by the Canadian labour market (see Figure 8). 46 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information figure 5 Population and Labour Force Growth Annual Average Increases Canada Source statistics Canada, Demography Division (unpublished data); Human Resources Development Canada as cited by the Canadian Labour Force Development Board. Canad's Population growth rate has been declining since the 1950s. However, the growing participation of women in the labour force contributed in a labour force growth which peaked in the 1970s. While the participation of women in the labour force is likely to continue immigration will remain a major source of labour force growth. Labour Market Trends Figure 6 Labour Force Participation Rates Canada SOURCE: COPS, 1992. 48 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Figure 7 Population and Labour Force by Age and Sex, Canada (Thousands) Men Women 2031 Women 70-74 65-69 60-64 56-59 50-55 45-49 40-44 1990 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 15-19 10-14 Women - 2000 1500 1000 500 500 0 1000 1500 2000 65* 60-64 55-59 50-54 45-49 40-44 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 15-19 10-14 5-9 0-4 2000 1961 1500 1000 500 Labour Force 500 0 I 1000 1500 2000 I Population Sources Statistics Canada, Population Projections for Canada, Provinces and Territories, 1989-2011, Catalogue 91-520, March 1990, and Employment and Immigration Canada, Canadian Occupational Projection System, 1990. 2 Labour Market Trends 49 Figure 8 Contribution to Population Growth by Immigration & Natural Causes Canada 400 Net Average Change in Population (000s) 300 200 100 0 1981-1986 1986-1991 1991-1996 1996-2001 SOURCE: COPS, 1992. Cited by the Canadian Labour Force Development Board. Immigration has historically played a significant role in Canada's population growth. Current trends show that by 1996, half the population growth in Canada will come from immigration. By the end of the decade, immigration is expected to contribute to a majority share of population growth. Recognition of foreign credentials as well as prior learning assessment will remain important issues in order to utilize fully immigrants' skills. 50 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information From the previous graphs, the practitioner can make some observations about the composition and size of the labour force: • Although the number of working women will increase, the number of working men will decrease. •The population is not growing enough to boost the supply of workers with young people or immigrants. • the number of young people aged 15 to 34 will decrease to the year 2000. • the majority of Canada’s new immigrants now come from Asia, Africa and Latin America countries, many without the language or educational skills required. As a result, labour market adjustment is difficult. together this labour force composition data tells a practitioner that, as Canada moves into the 21st century, there will be a deficit of young people in the job market. Today's high school students and groups that have been formerly kept out of the Labour market (aboriginal peoples, persons with disabilities, visible minorities and women) may find themselves in demand if they have the right qualifications. Designated Group Members the inclusion of groups that have been formerly kept out of the labour market or the exclusion of certain groups formerly included will have an impact on the number of workers and types of skills available to those hiring employees (see figures 9 to 13). for example the inclusion of more disabled people is bringing about a change in work environment and in attitudes. These changes will affect hiring procedures, thus rearranging the fabric of the labour force. If Canada is to have a labour force skilled to enough to compete in the global economy, it is necessary to make effective use of all available human resources. Regulations are now being reviewed to improve legislation which helps employers identify and eliminate barriers to employment designated group members: aboriginal peoples, persons with disabilities visable minorities and women. however the state of the economy, to some extent, controls the pace at which employers can implement equity programs. Downsizing and hiring freezes during the recession have made it difficult for companies to make extensive changes. nevertheless the Annual Report Employment Equity Act 1992 states, “Many under the [Federal Equity] Act have made substantial efforts to achieve a more equitable workforce despite this difficult economic period” (p. 49). Federal Labour: The Employment Equity Act labour laws are directed toward governing relationships between employers and labour laws are a direct impact on the makeup of the labour force. One of the most influential pieces; of legislation involving labour law and the composition of the Labour Market Trends 51 work force is the 1986 Employment Equity Act which touches all aspects of the labour force: composition, training, values. “The Employment Equity Act represents a significant step towards achieving a representative work force in Canada. It marks a shift in labour market policy which requires pro-active and positive action by employers to ensure fairness and equity in employment.” (Letter from Monique Vezina in 1992 Annual Report.) In addition to the social benefits, employment equity programs are seen by many to be good economic policy. A representative work force that makes full use of available skills, talent and abilities contributes to the effective functioning of the economy. Global market competition is increasing, technologies are advancing rapidly, information is growing at a rapid pace and the demand for skilled labour is rising. At the same time, Canada’s birth rate is declining and the traditional labour supply is shrinking. It is estimated that, by 2000, two thirds of the entrants in the labour force will be members of the groups designated under the Act: women, aboriginal peoples, people with disabilities and visible minorities. The Employment Equity Act was passed in August 1986 and the Legislated Employment Equity Program was set up within Human Resources Development Canada to administer, implement and monitor compliance. The Act requires federally regulated employers with 100 or more employees to prepare and carry out action plans to achieve a work force in which designated group members are fairly represented. The legislation covers about 353 employers mostly in the banking, transportation and communication industries. Employers were given two years to set up their systems and to begin reporting annually. They are required to prepare an employment equity plan with goals and timetables, identify and remove employment barriers, institute positive policies and accommodate employees’ physical, cultural and other differences. The employers’ reports are accessible to the public through approximately 250 designated public libraries across Canada. The following are some indications of improvement in 1991 cited in the Annual Report Employment Equity Act 1992. • The reported representation of each of the four groups improved slightly in 1991, in spite of the adverse effects of the recession. • I ho not effect of hirings and terminations contributed to increasing representation of women, aboriginal peoples and members of visible minorities. • the representation of the designated groups increased slightly in several occupational groups. 52 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information it is easier for members of a designated group to approach an employer for information when they know the company is proactively seeking to improve its employment equity. The Employment Equity Branch of Human Resources Development Canada can provide a list of all the employers under the Act with contact name, phone number and address. A practitioner can then direct a client to arrange an information interview to ask about company policies and how an employee might expect to be treated in that organization. When it comes time for actual job interviews, clients will know what to look for in any company, under the Act or not. As barriers fall, economic advantages are realized, and as acceptance grows, the labour market will reflect a new labour force composition, more opportunities will be •available to the four designated groups and those providing career services will encourage people to train in a much wider scope of fields. chapter 2 Labour Market Trends 53 Figure 9 Representation of Designated Groups in the Population Canada 60 50 40 S Women □Visible Minorities 0) o 30 (D O_ 20 ■Aboriginal Peoples □ Persons with Disabilities 10 0 1986 1991 SOURCES. Statistics Canada, 1991 Census; 1991 Health and Activity Limitation Survey (HALS). Human Resources Development Canada, 1991 Employment Equity Data Report. (Note: For persons with disabilities, the reference is to representation in the population aged 15 to 64 years.) Cited by the Canadian Labour Force Development Board. The designated group share of Canada’s population has grown significantly since 1986. This is particularly true of the visible minority and aboriginal populations. Designated groups now account for over 70 percent of the population. 54 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Figure 10 Labour Force Participation Rate Total Male Female source: Human Resources Development Canada, Preliminary Estimates, 1991 Census. Cited by the Canadian Labour Force Development Board. the Labour force participation rate of most of the designated groups is relatively high. It has grown dramatically for women over the last two decades. The bulk of the growth occurred among women aged 25 to 44 years. Their labour force participation rate increased by over 30 percent between 1971 and 1991. Higher labour force participation rates and increasing reliance on immigration as a source of population growth indicate that designated groups will continue to be a growing source of labour supply. Achieving equity in employment and employment programs will remain a high priority. Furthermore, the growing participation of women in the labour force and particularly those with young children at home, will require policy responses that will allow women to reconcile work and family responsibilities. chapter 2 Labour Market Trends 55 figure 11 Employment of Designated Groups by Occupation, 1991 Canada Visible Minorities Persons with Disabilities 8.4% 4.0% 8.4% 21.9% 28.0% Managers, Professionals Technicians, Supervisors Clerical, Sales, Service Skilled Crafts & Trades ■ Other Blue Collar EE Not Stated SOURCE: Statistics Canada, 1991 Census; Human Resources Development, 1991 Employment Equity Data Report Designated groups are highly represented in clerical, sales and service occupations. The occupational concentration of women in clerical occupations is particularly significant. The relatively significant under representation of women in blue-collar and skilled craft and trades occupations denotes occupational segregation by gender. There is a significant representation of women and visible minorities in managerial occupations. Aboriginals and persons with disabilities are less represented. However, the range of occupations included in the managerial category does not always imply designated group representation in decision-making positions. Employment equity in hiring and promotions still remain issues. 56 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information figure 12 Unemployment Rates by Designated Groups Status Canada □All Canadians ■Visible Minorities ■Aboriginal Peoples □ Persons with Disabilities source Human Resources Development Canada, Preliminary Estimates, 1991 Census. Cited by the Canadian Labour Force development Board. designated groups have higher unemployment rates than men in the general population. Aboriginal peoples face the highest unemployment rate, followed by persons with disabilities. Women of all designated groups fare worse than men, except for aboriginal women who have a lower unemployment rate than aboriginal men. The high unemployment rates facing designated groups will require appropriate programs that will address the needs of those who are disadvantaged in the labour market. chapter 2 Labour Market Trends 57 Figure 13 Average Employment-Related Earnings of Designated Groups Canada 35 29.847 □All Canadians 30 25 w □Visible Minorities 25.691 24.328 21.667 20 21.144 ■Aboriginal Peoples 17.776 14.078 15 10 5 0 Total Male Female SOURCE: Human Resources Development Canada, Preliminary Estimates, 1991 Census. (Note: Preliminary estimates for persons with disabilities are not yet available.) Cited by the Canadian Labour Force Development Board. Employment-related earnings include earnings from full-time, part-time and self-employment. Average earnings for visible minorities and aboriginal peoples as a whole are below the average for the total population. This is also true for all women as well as aboriginal men. What is striking, however, is the earnings disparity between men and women of all groups. Aboriginal women fare worst of all. I he strong gender component of the earnings disparity is underscored here. 58 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Award-Winning Equity Programs Some examples of companies who received public recognition for their equity programs follow. They may be of interest to those who are counselling members of the designated groups. Federal Express Canada LTD: The company received the recruitment advertising award and was named in the Financial Post as one of the 100 best companies to work for in Canada. Royal Bank of Canada: The senior vice-president and general manager received the Ivan Ahanakew Award from the Interprovincial Association on Native Employment for “approaching community organizations and building the strongest ties with the native community of any banker in the country.” The Bank also received, from Manitoba CNIB, the Regional Award of Recognition for making its offices accessible to people with poor vision; and, from Toronto Canadian Hearing Society, the Award of Recognition for its increasing use of signers and its sponsorship of projects promoting awareness of the needs of hearing-impaired employees. Toronto Dominion Bank: For successful implementation of entry-level computer training program and hiring two disabled persons, the bank received the 1991 ACT (Alternative Computer Training for the Disabled) Certification of Appreciation Award. Bank of Nova Scotia: The bank received the Exceptional Commitment Award for its efforts in providing work placements for people with disabilities and in building employer awareness. Canada Post Corporation: The Corporation received Employer of the Year Award for contributing the most to hiring and integrating persons with disabilities. Canadian Pacific Forest Products Ltd: The Company was the recipient of the Merit Award 1992 from the Federal Contractors Program for including designated group members on employment selection committees, installing access ramps, actively recruiting members of designated groups, revising requirements for entry-level jobs and developing anti-harassment policies. Digital Equipment of Canada Ltd: The Merit Award 1992 from Federal Contractors Program was awarded to Digital for increasing designated group member employees, providing language training, having building accessibility for the disabled, using job sharing, flexible time, job coaching, networking and career development planning. Ontario Hydro: The Utility received the Merit Award 1992 from Federal Contractors Program, for a communications program informing employees of the organization’s equity policies and extending that program to post-secondary institutions; its Aboriginal Awards Program; and its employment equity committees. SOURCE: Annual Report Employment Equity Act (1992). Chapter 2 Labour Market Trends 59 Overview of Other Federal Labour Laws In addition to the Employment Equity Act, other federal laws that have a particular effect on the movement into and out of the labour market are the: • Canada Labour Code • Unemployment Insurance Act • Canadian Human Hights Act For example, one of the variables the Canada Labour Code, Part III defines is maternity leave and benefits. Allowing women to return to their job after childbirth makes it easier for women of childbearing age to be in the work force. It also brings about more temporary jobs to replace these workers on leave. The Unemployment Insurance Act was changed in 1994 in a way that affects people moving into and out of the labour market. In an effort to save a depleting insurance fund, government stated that a person cannot receive UI benefits if he or she quits his or her job voluntarily or is terminated for cause. This affects the number of unemployed workers in the market looking for jobs. Collective bargaining also affects who can move into certain occupations and how long they can stay. There are complex interactions between the economic climate, technological change, union bargaining and employment opportunities. An example of such an interaction is described in the broadcast industry’s human resource study: Unions have some concerns about initiatives they see in the workplace. Employment equity legislation, for example, is considered a threat to union seniority rights and to the merit principle. Multi-skilling can be the thin edge of a wedge to reduce the number of jobs within the industry. It also has implications for jobs covered by more than one collective agreement. (Canadian Broadcasting Industry, Human Resources Steering Committee, 1993, pp. 87, 88, 100.) Provincial/Territorial Labour Laws The labour laws governing most of the work force in Canada are generally provincial or territorial and they vary. Each province or territory may have a different minimum wage, different statutory holidays and different rules regarding holiday and vacation pay, hours of work and overtime, and so on. In some instances, an institution can fall under both jurisdictions as in the case of the Ontario community colleges. They must conform to both federal and provincial equity laws. Provinces are also at different stages in employment equity. Some have passed legislation; some are still in the formative stages of legislation. Information about the labour laws and standards in a province can be obtained from the provincial or territorial ministry of labour. 60 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Provincial/Territorial Labour Laws Standards are set relating to: • who is covered under the Act; • hours of work; • minimum wage; • vacation pay; • overtime pay; • equal pay for equal work; • benefit plans; • public holidays; • pregnancy and parental leave; • termination of employment; • severance pay; • wage protection program; • retail business establishments; • homeworkers; • domestics; • agricultural workers; and • lie detectors. Only the following industries come under the federal jurisdiction: • aircraft operations; • banks; • radio and television broadcasting; • grain elevators; • uranium mining and processing; • primary fishing; and • transportation, inter-provincial communications and Crown corporations. All other employers and workers must comply with their province’s standards and laws. Implications of Labour Force Composition for Career Decision Making Counsellors and their clients can benefit from a knowledge of how demographic factors combine to influence the labour force. Data on the composition of the labour force can lead to several questions that will aid an individual in making a more Informed career choice. • Does it matter to me whether I work in a male- or female-dominated field? • Does it matter to me whether I work in a field where there is a majority of younger or older workers? chapter 2 Labour Market Trends 61 • Is it important to me to work in a field that has demonstrated a commitment to hiring and integrating members of the designated groups (aboriginal peoples, persons with disabilities, visible minorities and women)? • What are the advantages of choosing any of the above; the disadvantages? • What will it mean for my advancement if I have a college diploma and 70 percent of the people in the field have university degrees? • What salary is the average worker with my education making? • Will there be openings in this field in a few years due to retirements? • Will knowing a language other than English or French be of value in this field? Demographics Affect Career Opportunities Investigating demographic information to help make career decisions might include reading industry reports. For instance, Organizing for the Future, the national report on the horticultural industry, states that many growers do not retire at the normal retirement age, and there are now relatively high proportions of operators whose average age is over 50. In spite of staying in the labour force past normal retirement age, they do eventually leave. Because of their average age, the time is coming soon when large numbers of operators will need to be replaced. Someone studying the field would also note that the horticulture industry is maledominated at this point in time. SOURCE: Organizing for the Future (National Steering Committee for the Human Resource Study of the Canadian Horticultural Industry, 1992). By studying the demographic makeup of an industry, practitioners can help clients/ students decide if it meets their needs and capabilities. Not all women can overcome the barriers of working as a minority in a male-dominated occupation. And not all older workers are comfortable entering a field where most of the workers are much younger than they are. On the other hand, many people are ready for the challenge of training in areas of demand and fitting in anywhere they can use their new skills. 62 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information E SUMMARY the purpose of this chapter has been to sensitize those providing career services to the kinds of issues that have an impact on occupational growth and decline. In particular, the following have been considered: • innovations in technology and the globalization of trade; • the shift to non-standard employment; • industrial shifts; and • demographic changes. By way of example, the remainder of the chapter summarizes and illustrates in detail how these labour market trends combine to influence employment opportunities in the health care industry. The health care industry provides a good sample because nearly all the trends discussed here are affecting this industry. It provides an excellent example of how government policies can affect employment in a sector instruction OF THE IMPACT OF LABOUR MARKET TRENDS ON THE HEALTH CARE Industry as pointed out in section C of this chapter, economist Nuala Beck lists the health •sector as one of the areas of industrial growth for North America. However, despite the growing demand for health care products and services, deficit-ridden provincial governments have curtailed medical expenditures so cost containment and improved productivity are going to be the themes in hospitals and the health care industry throughout the 1990s. part of the result of reducing costs has been a move to shift care from the hospital to the immunity. Health care workers have lost their jobs during this transition and restructuring of health care, and more losses are expected in the next few years. However in the long term, health care that can be provided to an aging population •home care, rehabilitation, gerontology — in a cost-effective way will offer many opportunities Reduced Government Spending and Nurse Practitioners to cut costs the ways in which medical services are delivered must be changed. since doctors services represent the largest expense in delivering medical service attempts are being made to decrease the need for doctors in the health systems Many health economists are looking to the use of nurse practitioners as a major instrument in the struggle to provide more cost-effective health care in nurse practitioners are registered nurses who have received advanced education enabling them to handle many aspects of primary health care such as annual check ups and council ling. They are likely to practise in community health centres Public Health clinics. Labour Market Trends G3 Nurse Practitioners: A Growing Field Inside the neo-natal unit at Toronto’s Women’s College Hospital, nurse practitioner Tricia Scott diagnoses premature infants, studies X-rays and directs registered nurses. When resident doctors were scaled back more nurse practitioners were hired at a reduced cost. More are on the way. Ontario has announced it is setting up special courses to teach nurses to do some of the things doctors have traditionally done, including diagnosis and treatment of common disease and injuries. Other provinces, such as British Columbia, use practitioners who take some extra courses, but no official programs are available as there are in Ontario. In the Comox Valley on Vancouver Island, a centre run by five nurses started seven months ago. They mostly manage patients’ diets and lifestyles. If the two-year pilot project is a success, more responsibility could follow. In Alberta, proposed amendments to the Public Health Act would allow nurses to prescribe medicine and perform some of the functions of doctors in areas where no doctor is readily available. Health department officials say the concept could be expanded to inner-city facilities to speed up delivery of primary care. Ontario is making the first move in Canada to introduce nurse practitioners as a major part of the health-care system. Those interested in the nursing field would be well advised to obtain university degrees as part of their training. It is expected that nurses who specialize, become nurse practitioners and obtain a master’s degree will have very little trouble finding employment. On the other hand, one job forecaster predicts that community college nursing programs will be eliminated and the number of nurses graduating is expected to decline as a result. Instead, colleges will focus on courses for registered nursing assistants (RNAs) and health care aides as demand increases for these medical workers (Campbell, 1994, p. 86). It appears that nursing is heading in the same direction as the clerical field. That is, a declining demand for middle level skilled workers, such as general duty nurses who don’t have a university degree and an increased demand for highly skilled nurse practitioners and lower skilled registered nursing assistants (RNAs) and health care aides. Innovations in Technology Many fields such as printing, clerical, SOURCE: Vancouver Sun, Dec. 14,1994 and auto parts and broadcasting are February 16, 1995. reducing the number of workers because of technology. However, in the health care sector, technology is generally seen as increasing the staffing requirements because many of the technologies are complementary to existing ones as opposed to replacing them. Emerging fields include laser and lithotripsy technicians, and molecular genetic technologists. 64 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Although technology is a major shaping force in the health care field, induced government spending will control the entry of high-tech developments into the public realm. Information technologies in health care include computerized patient records, scheduling, accounting, pharmacy as well as health care literature, decision support systems, health devices data bases, public health information and government information systems. A truly comprehensive patient care system could replace all manual systems of patient care documenttalion, all methods of assignment of health care personnel, workload measurement technologies, and report writing for clinical research and auditing of medical records for legal/ professional requirements. the health care sector is likely to make greater use of these information technologies to improve productivity and contain costs. It will likely lead to loss clerical and middle management staff and more opportunities for technical workers such as chief Information officers, computer application specialists, computer programmers and data base managers. Samples of Technologies in the Health Care System A. Diagnostic Technologies such as 3-D imaging techniques that will replace some X-rays; nucleic acid probes tagged with a tracer substance used to locate or identify. B. Emergency Care Technologies such as new trauma management techniques. C. Therapeutic Technologies such as artificial intelligence in ventilation which would adjust oxygenation, adjust ventilation, and detect deterioration of the patient; non-invasive shock waves that destroy kidney and gall stones; recombinant DNA which is the ability to insert altering genetic information into the cell; pain management techniques. D. Rehabilitation Technologies such as new and better assistive devices including environmental control systems which permit disabled people to operate appliances; “smart” houses. E. Computer Technologies such as computerized mannequins that allow anaesthetists-in-training to practise their techniques with simulated patient problems and equipment malfunctioning programmed to occur. Demographic Change: Our Aging Population the aging of the baby boom generation wifi mean increased demand for both highly skilled workers (geriatricians, long-term care administrators, physiotherapists, social workers) and for workers with little or no post-secondary training (nurses aides, homo care workers, kitchen staff, laundry and housekeeping aides, maintenance workers, office co-ordinators and admissions receptionists). However, as aging boomers use health services in ever increasing numbers, cost containment and Improved productivity will remain a priority. chapter 2 Labour Market Trends 65 Changing Consumer Demand In a strange paradox, the high cost of technological advancements in medicine and the need to reduce health care spending are serving to advance the consumer preference to have holistic, complementary forms of medicine available alongside traditional medicine. Shifting Health Care Focus and New Jobs The entire orientation of health care is likely to shift to a more family- and community-based model. Greater emphasis will be placed on health protection and disease prevention. Given the move toward patient empowerment, high-quality physical and psychological environments will be demanded by everyone everywhere. This will mean jobs for patient rights advocates, ergonomic specialists, community home workers, psychologists, psychotherapists and alternative medicine delivers. SOURCE: Where The Jobs Are, (Campbell, 1990, p. 90). In Ontario, public pressure for mother-controlled and family-centred birthing is leading to the development of three low-tech birthing centres. Economic pressure to save money by using midwives instead of specialists is supporting this move. British Columbia has also made midwifery a regulated health care profession. And Quebec and Alberta are following. In addition to midwives, public acceptance of nurse practitioners should also be high. These health care professionals will likely be salaried, so it is more likely that nurse practitioners will spend a bit more time with a patient because they’re not involved in “revolving-door” feefor-service medicine. They also emphasize keeping people well, rather than just treating illness. Re-engineering and Multi Skilling: Patient-Focussed Care Patient-focussed care is a new management strategy being adopted by some hospitals in which staff members learn skills from other health-care disciplines. For example, housekeepers used to just clean hallways, lounges and patients’ rooms. But under this strategy, they are retrained to do certain bedside tasks. The housekeepers are renamed patient-care associates and are paid at a higher rate. These upgraded housekeepers are helping patients with their hygiene, assisting with feeding and transferring patients from bed to chair to bathroom. patient-focussed care originated in the United States in the late 1980s to reduce costs. It has since spread to Great Britain, Australia and some Canadian provinces. In California, Ontario and Manitoba hospitals where patient-focussed care has been introduced, there has been job loss particularly for nurses. 66 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Impact of Labour Market Trends on Occupations in the Health and Medical Sector Pharmaceuticals Health Care TRENDS Growth Decline Innovations in Technology + laser and lithotripsy technicians + mammography technologists + magnetic resonance technologists + molecular genetic technicians + genetic counsellors + computer application specialists + computer programmers + data base managers + chief information officers Demographics / Aging Population + palliative care counsellors + nursing assistants + nursing aides + home care workers + home care RNs + nurse practitioners + physiotherapists + respirologists + speech language pathologists + occupational therapists + dental hygienists Government Policies / Reduced Spending + funding co-ordinators + health policy analysts + volunteer co-ordinators + community care workers - ALL areas in health care are negatively affected by governments’ ability to pay Changing Business Practices + registered nursing assistants + home care workers + nurse practitioners - doctors (except in specialties related to treating elderly) - general nurses - middle managers Changing Consumer Demand + alternative health care practitioners + mid-wives + nurse practitioners - middle managers - data entry clerks - clerical staff involved in patient documentation Growth + research scientists (computer assisted molecular design, CAMD) + research and development positions + sales positions Biotechnology Decline Growth Decline + research scientists + ethics consultants + biomedical engineers + electronic technicians research and development positions + sales positions + + research and development (Bill C-91) - research and development (regulations, investment tax incentives) + scientist entrepreneurs with management skills This chapter has provided an introduction to several major trends that affect the Canadian!, labour market. They include: • innovations in technology and the globalization of trade; • the shift to non-standard employment; • industrial shifts; • demographic changes; • government policies; and • consumer preferences. The intention of this chapter is to introduce practitioners to the kinds of issues that have at impact on occupational growth and decline as illustrated in the example of the health care industry. In almost all cases, the trends demand higher skill levels of workers. For this reason, one of the most useful things practitioners can do to help prepare clients and students for the future is to advise them of the skills and attitudes needed to operate successfully, no matter what jobs remain and what new jobs will emerge. Chapter 4 is devoted to this subject. Please note that this chapter on major labour market trends is only the first step. There ar many more kinds of labour market information that need to be used and understood in the career development process. The next chapter provides more specific information on occupations. The National Occupational Classification system is introduced, followed by an examination of occupational forecasting and occupational mobility. 68 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information F. WHERE TO FIND MORE Some Sources of Information on Labour Market Trends Canadian Social Trends. Publication Sales, Statistics Canada, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0T6. Tel Statistics Canada Regional Reference Centre at 1-800-267-6677. Provides information about new products and services available from Statistics Canada. For those who need to know more about social issues and trends in this country (i.e, business people, educators, students). COPS Labour Market Outlook: COPS Reference 1992 Projections. Questions to: Chief, COPS, Labour Market Analysis and Macroeconomic Studies, Applied Research Branch, Strategic Policy, Human Resources Development Canada.Tel: (819) 994-3738; Fax: (819) 953 8584. Order from Labour Market Analysis and Macroeconomic Studies, Strategic Policy, Human Resources Development Canada, 140 Promenade du Portage, Phase IV, 4th Floor, Hull, Quebec K1A 0J9. A yearly report that summarizes an economic outlook for Canada and the provinces prepared by Informetrica Limited and Canadian Occupational Projection System (COPS) of Human Resources Development Canada. Projections are made from assumptions arrived at after a consultative process involving statistics and Canada­ wide discussions. Contains such tables as “Employment by Industry” for each province and “Gross Domestic Product by Industry” by province. Home Enterprise: Canadian and Home-based Work, 1992. Barbara Orser and Mary Foster. Home-based Business Project Committee, 1992. Study done on home-based businesses in Canada. Contains excellent bibliography for further information. Most university and some municipal libraries have copies. Job Shift: How to Prosper in a Workplace without Jobs. William Bridges, Anderson Wesley Publishing Company, 1994. National Training Survey 1991. Canadian Labour Market and Productivity Centre, 6-66 Slater Street, Ottawa, Ontario K1P 5H1. Tel: (613) 234-0505; Fax: (613) 234-2482. funded by Human Resources Development Canada. Information on training programs of business across Canada by size of organization, industrial sector, region and occupation and gender. the Next Canadian Century. David Crane. Stoddart Publishing Co., 1992. Powershift. Knowledge, wealth and violence at the edge of the 21st century. Toffler, Bantom Books, 1990. Quarterly Labour Market and Productivity Review. Canadian Labour Market and Productivity Centre, 6-66 Slater Street, Ottawa, Ontario K1P 5H1. Tel: (613) 234-0505; Fax (613) 234-2482. This is a review of current labour market developments and trends in chapter 2 Labour Market Trends 69 productivity and competitiveness. There is also a brief overview of general economic developments. Shifting Gears. Nuala Beck, HarperCollins, 1992. Trade Development Programs and Services. Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada, 125 Sussex Drive, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0G2. Toll-free: 1-800-267-8367. In Ottawa call: (613) 944-4000; Fax: (613) 996-9709. Some Sources of Information on the Labour Force Annual Report on the Employment Equity Act 1992. This and all other free HRDC publications can be ordered from Public Enquiries Centre, Human Resources Development Canada, 140 Promenade du Portage, Phase IV, Level O, Hull, Quebec K1A 0J9. Tel: (819) 994-6313; Fax: (819) 953-7260. ' Career Equity for Youth. Enid Lee Consultants, Toronto Board of Education, George Brown College. Contact Career Equity for Youth, Toronto Board of Education/George Brown College, Bickford Centre, Room 119, 777 Bloor St. W., Toronto, Ontario M6G 1L6. Tel: (416) 393-0929; Fax: (416) 393-1062. A kit for counsellors and teachers who counsel, with video and training program, to heighten awareness of racism and its impact, and to promote strategies to overcome barriers to successful participation of minorities in education/training and the labour market. The Canadian Occupational Projection System. COPS provides current and forward­ looking labour market information to help industry, labour, educators and students adjust to a changing economy. It can help identify what is happening in occupational labour markets and can also project occupational supply and demand trends for several years into the future. Some of the many COPS products on the labour force include historical, current and projected information on: • population and labour force by sex; • employment by occupation (500 occupations); • employment by industry (67 sectors); • immigration by occupation; • labour force by entrants and leavers; • trainees and apprentices by occupation; and • post secondary and trade school graduates by field of study and occupation. For more information on the COPS reports, contact: Labour Market Analysis and Macroeconomic Studies, Strategic Policy, Human Resources Development Canada, 140 Promenade du Portage, Phase IV, 4th Floor, Hull, Quebec K1A 0J9. Tel: (819) 994-3738; Fax: (819) 953 8584. 70 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information the Education, Culture and Tourism Division of Statistics Canada. Catalogue number 81 204; Education in Canada, catalogue number 81-261. Contains graduation information from the administrative records of Canadian degree-granting institutions. The University student Information System (USIS) is created from these records. It provides ready-made tabulations to members of the public. Electronic and print format. For information call Postsecondary Education Section of Statistics Canada (613) 951-8285. Perspectives on Labour and Income. Statistics Canada. The journal can be purchased at local authorized Statistics Canada agents and other community bookstores, through the Statistics Canada office or by mail from: Publication Sales, Statistics Canada, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0T6. Tel: (613) 951-7277; Fax: (613) 951-1584. Toll-free order line: 1-800267 6677. I he journal is published four times a year and provides information on: • the education and training of the labour force in Canada; • the distribution of income and trends in wages in the country; • updates on research underway in the labour and income field; and • new income and labour market data. "the Labour Market: Mid-year review,” is an annual supplement which includes highlights and an analysis of the indications and trend tendencies of labour market statistics in the previous six months. Each issue has a “What’s New?” section on latest and upcoming reports, data sources, associations and profiles that relate to the Canadian labour market. There is also a “Key Labour and Income Facts” section with latest annual figures and the most recent unpublished updates. Twelve sources of information for the table are listed with contact names and telephone numbers. A 10-year data set is also available on paper or diskette. Chapter 2 Labour Market Trends 71 72 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Chapter 3 JOBS IN THE NEW ECONOMY AND THE NATIONAL OCCUPATIONAL CLASSIFICATION (NOC) This chapter provides information on occupations, including: • occupational classification, with an introduction to the National Occupational Classification (NOC) and the career guidance companion, the Career Information Handbook (CIH); • occupational forecasting, with an introduction to the Canadian Occupational Projection System (COPS); and • an overview of inter- and intra-occupational mobility. A. OCCUPATIONAL CLASSIFICATIONS An occupational classification system provides a basis for ordering the existing occupational structures, which helps job seekers plan their careers. They can find out the nature of jobs and the training required to perform them, and about job mobility and wages. From 1971 to 1993, the Canadian Classification and Dictionary of Occupations (CCDO) was the key reference document that classified all the occupations in the Canadian labour market into a large integrated system. In an attempt to update the CCDO to better track and identify the occupations found in today’s labour market, Human Resources Development Canada produced the new National Occupational Classification (NOC) which became available in May 1993. Some of the vital uses of the CCDO and the NOC include tracking the jobs in the market and the people who are getting those jobs. Occupational classification systems allow the collection of occupational data through the census, the labour force survey and administrative data. This occupational data can then be used in labour market research and analysis to make occupational projections, to Identify training needs, to do occupational research and graduate employment surveys. Occupational research facilitates decisions about immigration, unemployment insurance, employment equity and training programs. An occupational classification system also provides a framework for describing different occupations and for understanding career paths and the factors affecting occupational change. These topics are introduced in this chapter and resources are suggested for further information. I nicking the education and skills of workers in the new economy through data linked to the occupational classification allows those involved to form strategies to keep the market ( Chapter 3 Jobs in the New Economy and the National Occupational Classification 73 healthy: strategies to change curricula or to provide new training, to update employees’ skills, to change immigration policies, and to create standards and methods of recognizing out-of-country training. The classification has been structured to help identify the potential for skill upgrading and occupational mobility. In cases where skill levels and skill types are similar, workers can change to a new occupation with some upgrading or learning of new skills that build on what they already know. The mobility can be lateral, as in the case of a scanner operator to camera operator in the printing industry, or vertical, as in the case of a sales representative to a marketing manager. Tracking the labour force through different occupations offers information on the relationship of occupations to job supply and demand by: • demonstrating where there are Improvements which the NOC opportunities to advance and where has made over the CCDO there are new entry-level positions; • suggesting education and training • NOC includes entry requirement needs; and information and indicates possibilities • indicating the number of people for career advancement and mobility. engaged in a certain occupation over time. • Unit groups are homogeneous in terms of skill level and skill type. A final — and vital — use of occupational classifications is for counsellors and • Administrative occupations are no educators to help clients and students gain longer in the "management" major the information they need about occupations group. in order to make informed career decisions. The next section will examine the NOC in • CCDO unit groups of declining size more detail. have been put into broader NOC groups. • Heterogeneous CCDO groups have been split into separate NOC unit groups. For example, CCDO had a Physiotherapist, Occupational and Other Therapists group which included Audiologists and Speech Pathologists. These occupations are not homogeneous and the NOC has separated the various therapists into their own groups. 74 The National Occupation Classification (NOC) Canadian counsellors and educators have available to them a good, solid basis for beginning research and sharing occupational information with their clients and students. As noted earlier, the advanced classification system called the National Occupational Classification (NOC), developed by Human Resources Development Canada, classifies and describes occupations in the Canadian labour market. The NOC is based on several Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information years of extensive occupational research mid analysis, and was introduced in the Bpring of 1993, replacing the CCDO. The NOC presents a new structural context for the Canadian labour market, inflecting occupational changes that have taken place over the last two decades in terms of evolving main duties, ( hanging requirements, changing demographics and new legislation. Occupations are classified into 522 groups, to which over 25,000 job titles are assigned. Most classification systems, including the CCDO, have grouped occupations by the type of work performed, i.e., the skill type. the NOC has combined this criterion with the type and length of education and training that are required to perform the job, i.e., the skill level. The new NOC provides an improved ability to collect, analyze and communicate occupational statistics and information. This more accurate occupational information is important for occupational supply and demand analysis, human resource planning, employment equity and the provision of labour market information. the NOC can also be used for graduate employment surveys or in occupational research. Career planning and vocational rehabilitation are also applications of this tool. An example of labour market Information resulting from the use of the classification of occupations is this excerpt from the Canadian Occupational Projection System (COPS) 1992: Chapter 3 The Electronic NOC An electronic version of the NOC is in the final testing stage. This system is a Windows-based computerized interactive reference application of the NOC. A broad spectrum of user groups, including representatives from counselling, labour market analysis, rehabilitation, education, employment equity, youth services and adult education services, were consulted on the development of this application. It is anticipated that the electronic NOC will be available in the fall of 1996 from Canada Communication Group Publishing, Ottawa (see Where to Find More). The system will consist of all the information currently in the print version of the NOC, and will be accessible through six distinct searching methods: • by skill type • by skill level • by NOC matrix • by occupational title • by NOC code • by keyword (or groups of keywords). A compare function allows users to view user-defined NOC data elements side by side. The application includes an extensive library of on-line, context-sensitive help screens that allow users to access help at any time. The application operates on DOS-based personal computers with Windows. It requires a minimum of an 80-386 processor and approximately 12MB of hard disk space per language (English and French). The application will also be available for local area networks. Jobs in the New Economy and the National Occupational Classification 75 On an occupational basis those concentrated in health, information technology, and services are expected to grow faster than average while occupations such as those in the tobacco, textiles, fishing, and clerical fields will lose workers. It is worthwhile noting that the fastest growing occupations are generally those requiring higher levels of skill. Information organized by occupational grouping is frequently depicted in statistical summaries as well as charts and graphs such as the graphs in section B of this chapter. 76 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information The Structure of the NOC the structure of the NOC system involves three tiers hierarchically arranged. 26 Major Groups: Each group has a unique, two-digit numeric code and is composed of one or more minor groups. See Appendix D for a complete list of the major groups. 139 Minor Groups: Each minor group has a unique, three-digit numeric code and is composed of one or more unit groups. The first two digits of this code indicate the major group to which the minor group belongs. 522 Unit Groups: Each unit group has a unique, four-digit code. The first three digits indicate the minor and major groups to which it belongs. In order to see how groups are related and to locate them quickly, the two criteria for forming the groups have been combined into a table with 10 broad skill-type categories across the top and four broad skill levels down the side. This matrix is available as a poster with the NOC binder. The Skill Types are: 0 - Management Occupations 1 - Business, Finance and Administrative Occupations 2 - Natural and Applied Sciences and Related Occupations 3 - Health Occupations 4 - Occupations in Social Science, Education, Government Service and Religion 5 - Occupations in Art, Culture, Recreation and Sport 6 - Sales and Service Occupations 7 - Trades, Transport, and Equipment Operators and Related Occupations 8 - Occupations Unique to Primary Industry 9 - Occupations Unique to Processing, Manufacturing and Utilities. Each skill type has four potential levels of skill into which occupations are classified. The Skill Levels are: Skill Level A - University education Skill Level B - College level education including trade apprenticeships Skill Level C - Secondary school plus a period of job-specific training Skill Level D - Short work demonstration (no formal education required). Chapter 3 Jobs in the New Economy and the National Occupational Classification 77 National Occupational 1 BUSINESS, FINANCE AND ADMINISTRATION OCCUPATIONS 0 MANAGE­ MENT OCCU­ PATIONS Skill Level C 4 OCCUPATIONS IN SOCIAL SCIENCES, EDUCATION, GOVERNMENT SERVICES AND RELIGION Major Group 00 001 Legislators and Senior Management 011 Administrative Managers 012 Managers in Financial and Business Services 02 Managers in Engineering, Architecture, Science and Information Systems 031 Managers in Health, Education and Community Services 041 Managers in Public Administration Major Group 11 Major Group 21 Professional Occupations in Natural and Applied Sciences 211 Physical Science Professionals 212 Life Science Professionals 213 Civil, Mechanical,Electrical and Chemical Engineers Major Group 31 Major Group 41 Professional Occupations In Health Professional Occupations in Social Sciences, Education, Government Services and Religion 111 Auditors, Accountants and Investment Professionals 112 Human Resources and Business Service Professionals 214 Other Engineers Skill Level B 3 HEALTH OCCUPATIONS Senior Management Occupations Professional Occupations in Business and Finance Skill Level A 2 NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Major Group 12 Skilled Administrators and Business Occupations 121 Clerical Supervisors 122 Administrative and Regulatory Occupations 123 Finance and Insurance Administrative Occupations 124 Secretaries, Recorders and Transcriptionists Major Group 22 Technical Occupations Related to Natural and Applied Sciences 221 Technical Occupations in Physical Sciences 222 Technical Occupations/Life Sciences 223 Technical Occupations in Civil, Mechanical and Industrial Engineering 224 Technical Occupations In Electronics and Electrical Engineering 31 I Physicians, Dentists and Veterinarians 31? Optometrists, Chiropractors and Other Health Diagnosing and I mating Professionals 313 Pharmacists, Dietitians and Nutritionists Major Group 32 Major Group 42 Technical and Skilled Occupations in Health Paraprofessional Occupations in Law, Social Services, Education and Religion 321 Medical Technologists and Technicians (except Dental Health) 322 Technical Occupations In Dental Health Care 323 Other Technical Occupations in Health Care (except Dental) Major Group 14 Major Group 34 Clerical Occupations Assisting Occupations in Support of Health Services 141 Clerical Occupations, General Office Skills 142 Office Equipment Operators 143 Finance and Insurance Clerks 144 Administrative Support Clerks 146 Mail and Message Distribution Occupations 147 Recording, Scheduling and Distributing Occupations 411 Judges, Lawyers and Quebec Notaries 412 University Professors and Assistants 421 Paralegals, Social Service Workers and Occupations in Education and Religion 341 Assisting Occupations in Support of Health Services Skill level 1) source: Occupational Outlook/Spring1993, Economic Services BC/Yukon Territory Region, Human Resources Development Canada. 78 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information classification Matrix 5 OCCUPATIONS IN ART, CULTURE, RECREATION AND SPORT 6 SALES AND SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 7 TRADES, TRANSPORT AND EQUIPMENT OPERATORS AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS 8 OCCUPATIONS UNIQUE TO PRIMARY INDUSTRY 9 OCCUPATIONS UNIQUE TO PROCESSING, MANUFACTURING AND UTILITIES Major Group 00 Senior Management Occupations 001 Legislators and Senior Management 051 Managers in Art, culture, Recreation and sports 071 Managers in Construction and Transport 072 Facility Operation and Maintenance Management 081 Managers in Primary Production (except Agriculture) 091 Managers in Manufacturing and Utilities Major Group 62 Major Group 72/73 Major Group 82 Major Group 92 Skilled Sales and Service Occupations Trades and Skilled Transport and Equipment Operators Skilled Occupations in Primary Industry Processing, Manufacturing and Utilities Supervisors and Skilled Operators 061 Sales, Marketing and Advertising Managers 062 Managers in Retail Trade Major Group 51 professional Occupations in Art and Culture 511 Librarians, Archivists, Conservators and Curators 512 Writing, Translating and Public Relations Professionals Major Group 52 technical and Skilled occupations in Art, culture, Recreation and Sport 521 Technical Occupations in libraries, Archives, Museums and Galleries Photographers, Graphic Arts technicians and Technical Occupations In Motion Pictures, Broadcasting and the Performing Arts 721 Contractors and Supervisors, Trades and Related Workers 722 Supervisors, Railway and Motor Transportation Occupations 723 Machinists and Related Occupations 724 Electrical Trades and Telecommunications 725 Plumbers, Pipefitters and Gas Fitters 821 Supervisors, Logging and Forestry 822 Supervisors, Mining, Oil and Gas 823 Underground Miners, Oil and Gas Drillers and Related 824 Logging Machine Operators 825 Contractors, Operators and Supervisors in Agriculture, Horticulture and Aquaculture 921 Supervisors, Processing Occupations 922 Supervisors, Assembly and Fabrication 923 Central Control and Processing Operators in Manufacturing and Processing Major Group 64 Major Group 74 Major Group 84 Major Group 94/95 Intermediate Sales and Service Occupations Intermediate Occupations In Transport, Equipment Operation, Installation and Maintenance Intermediate Occupations in Primary Industry Processing and Manufacturing Machine Operators and Assemblers 621 Sales and Service Supervisors 622 Technical Sales Specialists, Wholesale Trade 623 Insurance and Real Estate Sales Occupations and Buyers 624 Chefs and Cooks 625 Butchers and Bakers 626 Police Officers and Firefighters 641 Sales Representatives, Wholesale Trade 642 Retail Salespersons and Sales Clerks 643 Occupations in Travel and Accommodation 644 Tour and Recreational Guides and Amusement Occupations 645 Occupations in Food and Beverage Service 941 Machine Operators and Related Workers in Metal and Mineral Products Processing 942 Machine Operators in Chemical, Plastic and Rubber Processing 943 Machine Operators and Related Workers in Pulp and Paper Production and Wood Processing Major Group 66 Major Group 76 Major Group 86 Major Group 96 Elemental Sales and Service Occupations Trades Helpers, Construction Labourers and Related Occupations Labourers in Primary Industry Labourers in Processing, Manufacturing and Utilities 661 Cashiers 662 Other Sales and Related Occupations 663 Elemental Medical and Hospital Assistants 664 Food Counter Attendants and Kitchen Helpers Chapter 3 741 Motor Vehicle and Transit Drivers 742 Heavy Equipment Operators 743 Other Transport Equipment Operators and Related 744 Other Installers, Repairers and Servicers 745 Longshore Workers and Material Handlers 841 Mine Service Workers and Operators in Oil and Gas Drilling 842 Logging and Forestry Workers 843 Agriculture and Horticulture Workers 844 Other Fishing and Trapping Occupations 761 Trades Helpers and Labourers 762 Public Works and Other Labourers 861 Primary Production Workers Jobs in the New Economy and the National Occupational Classification 961 Labourers in Processing, Manufacturing and Utilities 79 Career Guidance Version of the NOC: The Career Information Handbook (CIH) Of interest to guidance and career counsellors is the career guidance version of the NOC, the Career Information Handbook (CIH). The CIH is a stand-alone counselling handbook that is compatible with the NOC structure. It provides a profile for all NOC groups (sub-group profiles are also provided when NOC unit groups are heterogeneous) in the form of ratings on several descriptor scales. Supporting narrative information which gives the main characteristics of each group or sub­ group helps to clarify the scaled indicators. Information on occupational options (transferability), the employer/workplace and identification of related occupations is also provided. Six indicators are used in the CIH. Aptitudes One of five levels is assigned for each factor, with levels representing the normal curve distribution of the labour force. Factors include: • General learning ability; • Verbal ability; • Numerical ability; • Spatial perception; • Form perception; • Clerical perception; • Motor co-ordination; • Finger dexterity; and • Manual dexterity. Interests Three of five descriptive factors are assigned in order of predominance: • Directive; • Social; • Methodical; • Innovative; and • Objective. Data, People, Things (DPT) One of several worker functions are assigned for each factor: • Data/information; • People; and • Things. Physical Activities One of several levels are assigned for each factor: • Vision; • Colour discrimination; 80 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information • • • • Hearing; Body position; Limb co-ordination; and Strength. Environmental Conditions There are one or more of several possibilities in each factor: • Work location; • Hazards; and • Discomforts. Education/Training Indicators Indicators for employment requirements are found in the NOC. An introduction and user’s guide contains a section devoted to the definition of each indicator level and an explanation of sub-group treatment for heterogeneous unit groups. A key or synopsis of factors is provided for easy reference. It is anticipated that the CIH will be available in the spring of 1996. Using the NOC and CIH with Clients/Students The NOC offers counsellors and educators a variety of options for assisting students and clients with occupational exploration. Individuals and groups can look up a specific occupation and find a list of job titles associated with the occupation group, a description of the main duties and the requirements for employment including education, training, certification and licensing. They will also be able to find similar occupations listed which they can look up and compare. The CIH gives, in narrative and scaled format, more detailed information about an occupation by relating aptitudes, interests and worker functions to an occupation’s duties. Clients can also find out what physical activities and environmental conditions are usually found in an occupation, and discover career advancement opportunities and specializations in the field, as well as some suggestions of typical employment sites. The Electronic NOC allows users to search quickly and easily and to compare information currently found in the printed version of the NOC. Instructions for accessing the basic NOC data are available so expert users can produce custom data exports. These resources are valuable for anyone engaged in a career search. Chapter 3 Jobs in the New Economy and the National Occupational Classification 81 B. OCCUPATIONAL FORECASTING One of the most frequently asked questions by those looking for work or planning a career change is: “What are the top jobs?” This is one of the most difficult questions to answer because it depends on the definition of best or top jobs. As the following table shows, the “list of best jobs” is different depending on the criterion used. • Best jobs defined by earnings produces one list. • Best jobs defined by growth rates produces another. • Best jobs defined by number of job openings produces yet another. A list of “best jobs for women," could even be produced where the criteria might include earnings and projected growth, opportunity to work at home/work part-time and a higher than average percentage of women in supervisory or management positions. However, a list of best jobs defined by any of the above factors, should also include a consideration of the supply of workers for those jobs. A shortage or oversupply of qualified and available workers — either unemployed or underemployed — will affect the competitiveness of the job market for a given occupation. Occupational Forecasting Perhaps the greatest confusion over such “top job” lists is the confusion between the numbers for projected growth rates and projected job openings. COPS Projections Understanding this difference will go a long way in explaining to clients why there are, and will continue to be, more job openings for secretaries, for example, than for engineers, even though clerical work is threatened by technology and the high-tech sector has an above-average growth rate. Newspaper articles or books, such as Job Futures, that report an actual number or percentage growth for occupational projections usually use, as their source, the Canadian Occupational Projection System (COPS) produced by the federal department of Human Resources Development Canada. 82 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Top Jobs in the Canadian Economy 1994 - 2005 Typical Top Jobs by Growth Rate • • • • • • • • « • • • • • • • • Taxi and Limo Drivers and Chauffeurs Hotel Front Desk Clerks Food and Beverage Servers Maîtres d’hôtel and Hostesses Restaurant and Food Service Managers Bartenders Actors Chefs Accommodation Service Managers Athletes Food Service Counter Attendants Support and Assisting Occupations in Motion Pictures, Broadcasting and the Performing Arts Bus Drivers and Other Transportation Operators Cooks Shoe Repairers and Shoemakers Other Technical Occupations in Motion Pictures, Broadcasting and the Performing Arts Attendants in Amusement and Recreation Typical Top Jobs by Total Number of Job Openings • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Other Factors To Consider When Making Your Own List of Top Jobs Typical Top Jobs by Earnings • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Specialist Physicians Judges General Practitioners and Family Physicians Dentists Senior Managers: Finance, Communications and Business Services Senior Manager in Goods Production Lawyers and Quebec Notaries Senior Managers: Trade and Broadcasting Optometrists Chiropractors Air Pilots, Flight Engineers and Flying Instructors Primary Production Managers (Except Agriculture) Engineering, Science and Architectural Managers University Professors Petroleum Engineers Chapter 3 Retail Salespersons Secretaries Retail Trade Managers Food and Beverage Servers Accounting and Related Clerks Janitors and Building Supervisors Cooks Registered Nurses Light Duty Cleaners Farmers and Farm Managers Cashiers General Office Clerks Truck Drivers Restaurant and Food Service Managers Kitchen and Food Service Managers Elementary and Kindergarten Teachers Receptionists Food Service Counter Attendants Sales Representatives, Wholesale Trade (Non­ technical) Babysitters and Nannies • Shortage or oversupply of qualified workers in the field. • Geographic location (does the job require relocation). • Job security (some occupations are highly susceptible to recessionary or seasonal pressures). • Opportunity for full-time or part-time employment. • Education level required. • Commitment of employers in the occupational field to employment equity. Jobs in the New Economy and the National Occupational Classification 83 JOB OPENINGS vs. GROWTH RATES WHAT THE NUMBERS MEAN Job Openings Growth Rates What produces jobs? Economic growth is the engine that powers the expansion of many job fields. The other producer of jobs is the need to replace workers who retire, die, return to school or return to the household (attrition), or change jobs (turnover). Growth and replacement together influence the future job picture. The projected growth of an occupation from COPS is usually reported as an average annual percent change, with an occupation described as having an above or below average growth rate. Increases in the total number of job openings projected by COPS is based on the two factors mentioned above: • jobs resulting from economic growth; and • jobs resulting from replacement needs (attrition * ). In many jobs, there will be as many or more job openings due to replacement needs than to economic growth. What this means is that even occupational fields that are not growing or are projected to experience job loss, can still produce job openings because of attrition. *COPS is only able to calculate attrition in its projected replacement needs. It does not yet have the capability to calculate turnover. This means that in industry sectors, like tourism, which are known for their high turnover, COPS will likely underestimate the number of job openings due to replacement needs. 84 However, because numerical increases in occupations are in large part determined by the size of the existing work force, a high or above average rate of growth in a small occupation doesn’t necessarily mean that the growing field will offer a large number of jobs. This is the paradox of the job market in the “new economy.” Despite the higher than average projected growth for “knowledge workers” such as engineers, the number of jobs produced by these small fields will be much lower than the “low tech” jobs in sales and service. What this means is that large occupational fields with below average growth can still produce more job openings than small occupational fields with high growth. While increases in the total number of job openings is probably the most useful number for clients, they should be aware that a high growth rate is often a signal of new emerging fields that will sustain growth for many years to come. Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Examples of the above points are illustrated in Figures 14 to 21. What is clearly shown in Figure 14 is that the major producers of job openings in Canada will be in: • sales and service • business, finance and administration • management. These three occupational groups will provide nearly two thirds of future job openings, while jobs in natural and applied science will provide only six percent of all future job openings. The COPS model is also capable of developing occupational projections at the provincial level. Because most clients and students are interested in labour market information at this level, the following figures provide examples for several provinces. These projections follow the graph (Figure 14) depicting the national outlook. Figure 15 shows that within sales and service, jobs offering the greatest number of openings are primarily entry level. Many require only limited education and training beyond high school. In business, finance and administration (Figure 16) jobs offering the most openings are primarily clerical and require some education and training beyond high school. Note that only “accountant” requires a university education. In the management group (Figure 17) jobs offering the most openings are not high paying “middle manager” white collar jobs in large companies or government. Rather, these jobs will likely be found in small firms and owner-operated businesses (where “you manage yourself”). These positions do provide opportunities for career mobility for the entry-level jobs shown in Figures 15 and 16. In the trades, transport and equipment operators group (Figure 18) most job openings will be in occupations that require only limited education and training beyond high school. In the skilled or apprenticeable trades, the most opportunities will be for: • carpenters • heavy equipment operators • motor vehicle mechanics • heavy duty equipment mechanics • electricians • construction millwrights. Chapter 3 Jobs in the New Economy and the National Occupational Classification 85 Figure 14 Projected Job Openings by NOC Skill Type Canada 1994 - 2001 Science SOURCE: COPS 86 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Figure 15 Projected Number of Job Openings Sales & Service British Columbia 1994-2001 Source: COPS NOC Demand Model chapter 3 Jobs in the New Economy and the National Occupational Classification 87 Figure 16 Projected Number of Job Openings Business, Finance & Administration Ontario 1994 - 2001 0 SOURCE: COPS NOC Demand Model 88 10 20 30 40 50 Thousands of Openings Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Figure 17 Projected Number of Job Openings Management Quebec 1994 - 2001 : SOURCE: COPS NOC Demand Model Chapter 3 Jobs in the New Economy and the National Occupational Classification 89 Figure 18 Projected Number of Job Openings Trades, Transport & Equipment Operators SOURCE: COPS 90 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Figure 19 Projected Job Openings for Occupations with High Growth Rates British Columbia 1994-2001 Teacher Assistants Optometrists Midwives/Nat. Healing Babysitters/Nannies Actors Cooks Restaurant Managers Glaziers Cable TV Srvc/Maintenance Chemical Engineers Computer Programmers Architectural Techs Cashiers Computer Engineers Computer Sys Analysts Outdoor Adven Guides Data Entry Clerks Film/Video Camera Oper Travel Counsellors Boilermakers Electronic Srvc Techs Furniture Finishers Early Child Educators Graphic Designers Shippers & Receivers SOURCE: COPS Chapter 3 Jobs in the New Economy and the National Occupational Classification 91 Figure 19 illustrates jobs with high growth rates and shows the total number of job openings projected. It demonstrates three points. • Not all fast-growing occupations offer a large number of job openings. • There should be plenty of opportunities for employment from attrition in large occupational fields that also experience above average growth, such as tourism occupations, especially cooks and restaurant managers. • Small occupational fields that experience above average growth, such as chemical engineers, cable TV maintenance workers or midwives/practitioners of natural healing, will produce comparatively fewer jobs. Industries with the Highest Projected Growth Rates So far, only occupational projections have been considered. COPS also provides industry employment projections. (See Chapter 2 for a discussion of the occupation­ industry distinction). Figures 20 and 21 show growth rates and job openings by industry. Having researched what jobs offer the greatest number of job openings, the next question is where to find such jobs. The Job Futures publication indicates the main industries of employment for the occupations it profiles. By concentrating on the industries which are most likely to hire workers in a given occupation, clients can increase the chances of a faster, more successful job search. But what if the main industries of employment for a given occupation are declining in size? Then, it might be useful to look at other industries which are expanding, to see if there are employment opportunities for the occupation of interest. For example, even though hospitals are still the major employer of nurses, the hospital sector is not growing very much. Pharmaceutical companies, however are growing. Looking for a position in pharmaceutical sales would be an option to pursue. Nuala Beck (1992) gives the following advice on how to expand a job search in the new economy. • Don’t limit a job search to “old economy” industries, such as forestry, mining, government or traditional manufacturing, that are in decline. • Iook for jobs in the growing “new economy” sectors such as computer software, telecommunications, environmental monitoring or biotechnology. 92 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Figure 20 Projected industry Growth Rates Canada 1994 - 2001 Accom/Food Services Amuse/Rec Services Personal Services Business Services Other Services Health & Welfare Trade Manufacturing Transport/Communic Finance/lns/R Estate Construction Education Mining Government Utilities Fishing & Trapping Agriculture Logging & Forestry -2 -1 0 1 2 3 Average Annual Growth Rate 4 5 SOURCE: COPS NOC Demand Model Chapter 3 Jobs in the New Economy and the National Occupational Classification 93 Figure 21 Projected Industry Job Openings Canada 1994-2001 Trade Manufacturing Accom/Food Services Health & Welfare Business Services Transport/Communications Education Finance/lns/R Estate Construction Other Services Personal Services Government Amuse/Rec Services Agriculture Mining Utilities Fishing & Trapping Logging & Forestry -100 source: cops Noc Demand Model 94 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 70C Thousands of Job Openings Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information • New economy sectors don’t just need scientists and technicians, they also need workers in finance, clerical, sales and administrative occupations. • Remember that within high-growth industrial sectors, it is small companies (especially those with less than 20 people) that are growing and creating jobs. While the large number of job openings in sales, service and clerical occupations illustrated in the previous figures may appear to contradict the information presented about our growing high-tech, knowledge-intensive economy, remember, numerical increases (the actual number of job openings) in occupations are primarily determined by the size of the existing work force. Tourism and tourismrelated occupations (especially in the food, accommodation and ground transportation sectors) are large and computer/scientific occupational groups are relatively small. Even a high or above average rate of growth doesn't necessarily mean that the growing field will offer a large number of jobs, if the occupation is small in size. The number of job openings are and will be greatest in the service sector. Some points to remember: • Jobs in the service sector are typically high-skilled (the secure, high-paid jobs) or low-skilled (insecure, low paid jobs). There are fewer middle-level skill jobs in the service sector than in the goods sector. • Many workers consider the lower-skilled traditional service sector jobs to be a “stopgap.” However, a reality of the new economy is that workers who do not develop the skills that are in demand will have to consider these jobs as “real” jobs on which to build a permanent career. • While the greatest number of job openings will be for so-called lower-skilled workers, literacy and other skills required of these workers are constantly increasing, and only those with the higher skill levels will qualify. To summarize, Canada's resource-based jobs are being replaced by service sector jobs that pay highly skilled workers well and lower skilled workers poorly. As the following table shows, the jobs available to those with no more than a high school education are entry level and are limited in type, job security and earnings. However, these jobs do provide a large number of openings for such workers and, with further experience and training, more opportunities are possible. Students and workers need to be made aware of the possibilities of career paths and occupational mobility. Sample career paths for the tourism industry and for lower-skilled workers are shown in the two charts “Gaining Skills to Get Where You Want to Be.” These were prepared from information in the National Occupational Chapter 3 Jobs in the New Economy and the National Occupational Classification 95 which has been designed to illustrate career paths and 96 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Job Openings for those with High School or Less B.C., 1993-2000 NOC NUMBER OF OPENINGS Business 1463 Couriers and Messengers 1461 Mail, Postal and Related Clerks 1462 Letter Carriers 1,173 965 676 Sales and Service (Intermediate Level) 6453 Food and Beverage Servers 6474 Babysitters and Nannies 6471 Visiting Homemakers and Housekeepers Sales and Service (Elementary Level) 6611 Cashiers 6663 Janitors and Caretakers 6642 Kitchen and Food Service Helpers 666 Light Duty Cleaners 6641 Food Service Counter Attendants 6622 Grocery Clerks and Shelf Stockers 6621 Service Station Attendants 6651 Security Guards and Related 6623 Attendants in Retail Services 6662 Specialized Cleaners 6683 Telemarketers and Home Demonstraters 6670 Attendants in Amusement and Recreation 13,266 3,851 3,801 7,670 7,284 6,711 6,077 6,031 2,808 1,789 1,727 1,385 1,065 687 562 NUMBER OF OPENINGS NOC Transport and Equipments Operation 7411 Truck Drivers 7452 Material Handlers 7414 Delivery Drivers 7413 Taxi and Limo Drives and Chauffeurs 7441 Res. and Comm. Installers and Servicers 4,285 3,119 2,644 1,060 590 Trades and Construction 7611 Construction Helpers and Labourers 7621 Public Works and Maintenance Labourers 2,474 889 Intermediate Occupations In Primary Industry 8431 General Farm Workers 1.824 Labourers in Primary Industry 8612 Landscaping Labourers 1,769 Machine Operators and Assemblers 9451 Sewing Machine Operators 899 Labourers in Processing, Manufacturing and utilities 9619 Labourers in Processing and Manufacturing 9617 Labourers in Food and Beverage Processing 817 667 The Following Require High School Graduation Business, Finance and Administration 1431 1414 1411 1433 1471 1422 1453 1434 1474 1412 1413 Accounting and Related Clerks Receptionists General Office Clerks Tellers, Financial Services Shippers and Receivers Data Entry Clerks Customer Service and Information Clerks Banking, Insurance and Finance Clerks Purchasing and Inventory Clerks Typists and Word Processing Operators Records and File Clerks 7,253 5,482 5,277 2,651 2,535 2,107 1,515 1,451 1,106 1454 Survey Interviewers and Clerks 1424 Telephone Operators 1451 Library Clerks 655 531 501 Sales and Service 6421 6473 6452 6451 Retail Salespersons Early Child Educator Assistants Bartenders Maîtres d’Hôtel and Hostesses 21,074 2,799 2,401 1,233 Transport and Maintenance 7412 Bus Drivers and Subway Operators 1,710 977 819 SOURCE: Occupational Outlook/Spring 1994, Economic Services BC/Yukon Region, Human Resources Development Canada. Chapter 3 Jobs in the New Economy and the National Occupational Classification 97 CD CO Gaining Skills To Get You Where You Want To Be Entry-Level Position Office Ass General Office Clerk With Experience and Training With More Training/Experience More Formal Education/Training Administrative Clerk Human Resources Assistant Real Estate Clerk Legal Secretary/Medical Secretary Human Resource Officer Real Estate Secretary Office Manager/Executive Secretary Human Resource Planning Consultant Notary Public/Property Manager Data Entry Cerk/Word Processing Operator Computer Operator Desktop Publisher Computer Service Technician Computer Programmer Computer Software Sales Representative Graphic Design Specialist Receptionist Film Production Company Office Assistant Tourist Information Clerk Public Relations Clerk Motion Picture Location Manager Conference and Event Planner Special Events Organizer Film Director’s Assistant Sales and Marketing Manager Public Relations Specialist Billing Clerk Accounting Clerk/Loan Clerk Insurance Claims Clerk Bookkeeper/Credit Supervisor Supervisor, Insurance Claims Loan-Mortgage Officer/Accountant Insurance Adjuster/Claims Examiner Shipping and Receiving Clerk Purchasing and Inventory Clerk Stock Control Supervisor Wholesale Buyer/Purchasing Agent Telemarketer/Tour Bus Reservations Agent Travel Counsellor Travel Agency Manager Cruise Ship Regional Sales Manager Sales Clerk, Health Food Store Natural Foods Products Sales Representative Holistic Health Consultant Naturopathic Physician Food and Beverage Server Formal Waiter-Waitress Chief Wine Steward/Maître d’Hôtel Catering Supervisor/Restaurant Manager Fast Food Preparer/Kitchen Helper Cook/Baker Apprentice Cook/Baker Executive Chef/ Cooking School Manager SOURCE: occupational Outlook/Spring 1994, Economic Services BC/Yukon Territory Region, Human Resources Development Canada. Gaining Skills To Get Where You Want To Be Entry-Level Position With Experience and Training With More Training/Experience More Formal Education/Training Hotel Cleaner/Hotel Doorkeeper Guest Service Attendant Hotel Front Desk Clerk Hotel Accommodation Sales Executive Day Care/Pre-school Helper Early Childhood Education Assistant Early Childhood Educator/Special Education Assistant Teacher’s Aide Day Care Owner-Operator Elementary School-Kindergarten Teacher Visiting Homemaker Health Care Aide/Long Term Care Aide Licensed Practical Nurse Community Health Nurse Patient Care Co-ordinator Group Home Support Worker Addictions Worker Life Skills Instructor Women’s Centre Co-ordinator Social Worker Probation and Parole Officer Landscaping and Grounds Maintenance Labourer Nursery and Greenhouse Worker Horticulture Technician Apprentice Horticulture Technician Landscape and Grounds Maintenance Contractor Horticulture Manager Electrical Appliance Installer Appliance Service-Repair Apprentice Appliance Service-Repair Technician Supervisor, Appliance Repair Shop Mechanic’s Helper Automotive Mechanic-Technician Apprentice Automotive Mechanic-Technician Motor Vehicle Repair Supervisor, Shop Construction Labourer Carpenter’s Helper Carpenter’s Apprentice Journeyperson Carpenter/Carpenter Contractor Food Processing-Production Helper Baking Machine Operator Team Supervisor, Flour Milling Operation Manager, Manufacturing SOURCE: Occupational Outlook/Spring 1994, Economic Services BC/Yukon Territory Region, Human Resources Development Canada. C. CAREER PATHS AND OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY If a curious person took the time to question people about their careers, he or she might hear a story like this one: “Yes, I very much enjoy my position as a journalist writing for several newspaper chains. I used to be a high school English teacher,” or “My career as a small business consultant grew from my love of training employees in my chain of donut shops. Before that I was a police officer.” Moving from one occupation to another is called occupational mobility. There can be several routes within a certain family of occupations or a move can be made outside the group as in the police officer to the retail store operator. Occupational mobility can be complex. “The mobility patterns across and among different jobs or occupations describe a giant lattice of interrelated movements rather than single, isolated, and clear-cut tracks” (Herr, undated, p. 3). A Career Path in Public Relations Position 1: A new worker may enter the labour force in public relations as a community relations officer in a public utilities company. Position 2: The individual may then move on to become a public affairs officer in a government department, where knowledge of and experience in relations with community members would be valuable when forming strategy for government action. Position 3: From here, a possible move could be to communications co­ ordinator in an association because of a well-developed knowledge of dealing with the public which is crucial to the success of an association. Experience with the government would be an asset because of knowledge of lobbying and legislation which could affect the association. What are the transferable skills that Counsellors will want their clients to allowed mobility within this unit group of be aware of the possibilities for occupations: excellent communication mobility growing out of any skills, problem solving and critical occupational choice. Clients thinking ability, computer literacy and a therefore need to be guided to demonstrated ability to plan, implement research more than the type of and evaluate. program to study. They also need to be guided to find out from libraries, associations and interviews with people who work in the field what family of jobs may be open to them. For instance, a person who is interested in a public relations program should know about the diversity of job titles and the variety of organizations where the positions may be found. 100 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Examples of A Variety of Titlestitles for Public Relations Employees TITLES ORGANIZATION Public Affairs Director Schools Government Customer Liaison Commercial Company Community Service Organization Information Officer Government Association Development Officer Hospital Community Service Organization Publicist Media Sports and Entertainment Communication Director Association Community Relations Officer/ Director Association Media Special Events Co-ordinator Association Production Co-ordinator Consulting Firm Marketing Co-ordinator Business Investor Relations Corporation Member Relations Union Association Internal Communications Co-ordinator Government Corporation Media Relations Officer Government Corporation Promotion Director Sports Club Shopping Mall Media Public Relations Consultant Consulting Firm Director Exhibits and Displays Government Corporation Government Affairs Officer Business Industry Relations Co-ordinator Business SOURCE: Courtesy of Claudine Wilson, Co-ordinator, Public Relations Program, Algonquin College. Chapter 3 Jobs in the New Economy and the National Occupational Classification 101 Intra-occupational Mobility Mobility within the same family of occupations is called intra-occupational mobility and occurs when there is a similarity of job duties which can be applied in a new industry or to a job with a different focus. An example of movement within a family of occupations is provided in the textbox “A Career Path in Public Relations.” In another case, knowledge of the variety of job titles encompassed in an occupational family enabled a high school student to broaden her options considerably. Interested in graphic design, she originally imagined her choices to be in an advertising agency or graphic design studio. A chat with a few graduates and human resource people demonstrated how graphic designers worked their way into these areas: architectural rendering, editorial illustration, book or album cover design, credit panels for videos and TV, medical illustrator and animated computer graphics. Inter-occupational Mobility What about movement outside an occupational family group? How easy is it? It depends on the fields and the transferable skills that were developed in the first part of the career. Moving outside the occupational family is called inter-occupational mobility. The police officer who opened a chain of donut shops developed excellent communication skills dealing with the community as a law enforcement officer. He also had superior record-keeping skills, accurate and detailed, which translated into bookkeeping and stock-keeping abilities. He had developed the capacity to read people and predict their needs — a helpful skill in serving customers and getting the most out of staff. Investigative skills transferred to the capability to search out the best supply sources. All these competencies plus other social and economic factors enabled this man to make a successful inter-occupational transition. Further examples of inter- and intra-occupational mobility are described in a trucking industry report entitled Canadian Trucking Industry - Human Resource Challenges and Opportunities. Between 1974 and 1987, truck drivers on the prairies were most likely to have moved into trucking from another occupation, compared to drivers elsewhere in Canada. About a third of the newly hired drivers came from other occupations. In contrast, occupational mobility among truck drivers was lowest in Quebec. Certain occupations stand out as sources of truck drivers: construction workers, heavy equipment operators and material handling workers. I ho economic base in a region predicts some of the source occupations. I or example, logging workers in British Columbia move 102 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information into trucking jobs and vice versa. Similarly, product fabrication, assembly and repair workers in Ontario are both a source and a subsequent occupation for drivers (Steering Committee of the Canadian Trucking Industry, 1990, p. 48). The sources of worker supply vary for many occupations, and it is helpful for the counsellor to be aware of the different paths that are possible. Persons with a strong desire to be involved in the excitement and bustle of the retail business, who know they do not want to settle down in one store to sell a specific product, could look for employment in a shopping mall and get there by one of the routes listed in the following textbox. Career Path in a Marketing Department of A Medium to Large Shopping Mal! The supply of workers for entry level jobs in this department usually comes from any of six educational/training backgrounds: creative advertising, marketing, public relations, retail management diploma or degree; general arts degree or experience in retail. Workers can follow the career path shown on the right, or move in from outside the company as shown on the left. Account executive in an ad --------------- to media company, public relations person from another company Special events co-ordinator or promotional director assistant to Promotion director* (carries out plans of marketing director) to Marketing director (works with ad agency): • budgets • decides when and where to advertise • plans promotions to Assistant general manager* to General manager * Position often omitted in medium-sized companies. Counsellors can explore with their clients the many options available in a career path in tourism demonstrated in the following chart “Career Paths in Tourism.” Chapter 3 Jobs in the New Economy and the National Occupational Classification 103 Career Paths in Tourism Front-Line/Operational Supervisory Accommodation (Front Office) Front Desk Agent Guest Service Attendant Switchboard Operator Concierge Reservations Clerk/Agent Sales Co-ordinator Valet Camp Attendant Chief Concierge/Guest Services Manager Public Relations Manager Sales Representative Assistant Front Office Manager Night Manager Switchboard Manager Reservations Manager Camp Counsellor Food and Beverage Services Foodservice Helper/Busperson Food and Beverage Server Bartender Wine Steward Doorkeeper/Bouncer Dishwasher/Potwasher Cook (1st, 2nd, Camp, Chef de parti, journeyman cook) Food and Beverage Service Supervisor Maître d’Hôtel Host/Hostess Catering Functions Supervisor Sous Chef Assistant Chief Steward Merchandising Outlet Supervisor Travel Trade Reservation (Ticket Agent) Retail Sales Clerk Travel Counsellor Tour Guide/On Road Guide International Counsellor Sales Representative Tour Planner Group Sales Representative Commercial Account Specialist Incentive Travel Specialist Destination Development Specialist Tour Leader Sales and Marketing Supervisor Transportation (Ground) Rental Agent (Car or RV) Motor Coach Driver Ticket (Reservation) Agent Customer Service Agent Meet and Assist Guide In-transit Attendant Taxi Cab Driver Transfer Officer/Agent Road Supervisor Driver Guide/Step On Guide Market Research Supervisor Public Relations Supervisor Advertising Supervisor Training Representative Attractions Attraction Facility Guide/Greeters Retails Sales Clerk Food and Beverage Wait Staff Gate/Cash Attendant Concession Attendant Ride Operators Assistant Floor Person (casino) Artist/Craftsperson/Entertainer Ride Operations Supervisor Concession Operator Dealer (casino) Amusement Park Supervisor Public Relations Assistant Human Resource Assistant Retail Shift Supervisor Maintenance/Grounds Supervisor Events and Conferences Concession Attendant Convention/Meeting Services Guide Destination Services Representative (Guide on hotel or airport) Sales Representative Registration Clerk Audio-visual Technician Security Officer Convention/Meeting Planner Functions Co-ordinator Program Specialist (AGM business meeting) Catering Co-ordinator (Facility) Banquet Supervisor (Site changes) Adventure Tourism and Recreation Retail Shop Clerk Recreational Facility Attendant Adventure Guide/Tour Director Rental/Repair Technician Outdoor Guide Outdoor Sport/Recreational Instructor Fishing Guide Recreational Facility Supervisor Marketing Supervisor Tourism Services Tourism/Visitor Information Counsellor (Info Centre, Auto Club, etc.) Information Centre Clerk/Guide Tourism/Visitor Information Centre Supervisor 104 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information _______ Career Paths in Tourism Management Executive Front Office/Rooms Division Manager Director of Sales and Marketing Executive Assistant Manager Convention Services Manager Resort Leisure Operations Manager Hotel/Lodge Manager Accommodation/Facilities Manager Resident Manager General Manager Corporate Vice-president Regional Manager of Chain Comptroller Human Resources Manager Public Relations Manager Catering Functions Manager Beverage Services Manager Night Club Manager Executive Chef Restaurant Sales Manager Restaurant Chain Manager Corporate Vice-president General Manager Senior Travel Counsellor Public Relations Manager Tour Promotions Manager Operations Manager Reservation/Ticketing Manager Sales Manager Travel Agency Manager Tour Operator/Wholesaler Managing Director General Manager Corporate Vice-president Human Resource Manager Car/RV Rental Agency Manager Service Station Manager Motor Coach Director Sales Manager Tour Manager/Long Distance Guide Corporate Vice-president Head of Visitor Services Human Resources Manager Games Manager (casino) Assistant Retail Manager Assistant Food and Beverage Manager Maintenance Manager Assistant General Manager President and CEO General Manager Fundraising Consultant/Administrator Convention/Meeting Manager (Corporate, Int'l, Assn) Exhibit Designer (Manager) Convention Centre Manager Conference Services Manager Executive Director/CEO Public Relations Manager Trip Leader/Senior Guide Outfitter Wrangler Resort/Leisure Operations Manager Hostel/Lodge Manager Sports/Recreational Consultant Accommodation/Facilities Manager Auto Club Travel Manager Tourism Association Administrator Key Tourism Positions in Government Director, Policy, Research and Planning Director, Tourism Development Tourism Info Centre Manager Manager, International Marketing Chapter 3 Entrepreneurial There are opportunities for business owners, developers and operators in every tourism sector. Entrepreneurship/Small Business Opportunities to start your own business are excellent in tourism. However, self­ employment is just as challenging in tourism as it is in any other industry. See the self-employment issue of Occupational Outlook to see if you have what it takes. Entrepreneurs must keep abreast of trends in the tourism industry in order to create a successful business. Some good publications to start with are: Tourism Small Business Operator This comprehensive set of standards is an excellent reference document for anyone currently operating a small business or contemplating purchasing or starting one. It is available at the Pacific Rim Institute of Tourism. Do-it-Yourself Feasibility Studies This series of five guides was produced by the federal industry department for the Canadian Aboriginal Economic Development Strategy to assist and assess possible business opportunities. Three titles in the series related to tourism are: • A Do-it- Yourself Feasibility Study in New Retail Ventures • A Do-it- Yourself Feasibility Study in Motel/Hotel Resort Ventures • A Do-it- Yourself Feasibility Study in Restaurant Ventures For more information call Industry Canada at (604) 666-3871. Deputy Minister of Tourism Minister Responsible for Tourism Jobs in the New Economy and the National Occupational Classification 105 D. WHERE TO FIND MORE Some Information Sources on Occupational Families NOC, Electronic NOC and Career Information Handbook. Canada Communication Group Publishing, Ottawa, Canada, K1A 0S9. Tel: (819) 956-4802; Fax: (819) 994-1498. Also available through bookstores. A conversion table relating the seven-digit codes of the CCDO to the unit groups of the NOC is available. Catalogue number is LMO830393E (English) or LMO830393F (French). It may be obtained in either text or electronic form by contacting: Occupational Systems, Human Resources Development Canada, Place du Portage, Phase IV, 5th Floor, Hull, Quebec K1A 0J9. Fax: (819) 994-0202 or by contacting Public Enquiries Centre Tel: (819) 994-6313; Fax: (819) 953-7260. Associations, Unions, Institutions, Organizations - Publications on trends, new skills needed, wages, guidelines and standards, reference names for information interviews. Career Centres - At community colleges, private colleges, universities, local community resource centres such as the “Y”, libraries. Sector Council Human Resource Studies - Lists occupation titles and family groups, gives descriptions, entry level positions and examples of mobility. See Chapter 5 for more on sector councils. ‘What can I do with a Degree In...” Erindale College, University of Toronto, 1992. 3359 Mississauga Road North, Mississauga, Ontario L5L 1C6. Twenty-four subject areas with examples of job titles and employers, skills and knowledge acquired, and career planning strategies. 106 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Chapter 4 LABOUR MARKET SKILLS FOR A NEW ECONOMY A. OVERVIEW OF SKILLS Even though the Canadian Occupational Projection System outlined in Chapter 3 considers the impact of technological change on occupational shifts, with the rate of technological change so rapid, it is difficult for anyone to predict, with certainty, what jobs will remain and what new jobs will emerge. For this reason, one of the most useful things career counsellors, teachers and others providing career services can do to help prepare clients and students for the future is to advise them of the knowledge, skills and attitudes needed to operate successfully in a world of non-stop change. This chapter outlines those attitudes and skills. They include the need to: • become informed consumers of educational services; • develop generic employability skills; • realign expectations; • develop entrepreneurial skills and outlook; • understand all the steps in the career decision-making process; • become self-reliant; and • develop research skills. Because of the rapid pace of change, workers need to develop higher levels Did You Know? of workplace skills. As highlighted in Chapter 2, occupational shifts have Seventy percent of Canadians now in led to an acceleration in the growth of the work force will still be in the work highly skilled jobs. Often, these jobs force by the year 2000, but experts say are in the fast-growing business that 85 percent of the technology they services sector, which includes will be using has not even been advertising, legal, scientific, invented yet. engineering, human resource and computing service firms. Such firms SOURCE: “Car Talk,” CARS Insider, Fall, 1992. tend to be small, and to be competitive they must have a wellqualified work force. This places a premium on technical knowledge, business communication and marketing skills. However, it is important to note that the so-called lower-skilled jobs in traditional services require more skills today than did the lower-skilled blue collar jobs that have disappeared. For example, the shift to tourism activities and to specialized Chapter 4 Labour Market Skills for a New Economy 107 retail sales and personal services that cater to the well-off, mature market demands workers with excellent product knowledge, high levels of literacy and good people skills, which includes good phone skills. These firms also operate in a small business environment, which places a far greater emphasis on the knowledge, communication skills and flexibility of workers than is usually expected. Clerical work functions are also changing with computer technology to provide complex administrative assistance. It is not unusual to see secretarial staff being required to use spreadsheet, data-base management, accounting and desktop publishing programs. Often, the secretary is the only person in the office knowledgeable enough to run certain computer programs or make recommendations for technology purchases. As a result, they have more input. They work with the manager or a team, as opposed to doing only the more routine support functions. Employers are not only looking for the proper techinical skills, they want employees to have basic generic skills that will make them keen and easy to retrain as the need arises and will make them emissaries of the company as well as task-oriented employees. 108 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information B. SKILLS FOR A NEW ECONOMY The remainder of the chapter will describe in more detail seven core skills of particular importance to employability. Skill #1: Become an Informed Consumer of Educational Services It Pays to Stay in School Developing higher levels of workplace skills is often accomplished through post­ secondary education. In fact, employment gains for those with post-secondary education offer clear evidence that the job market has been undergoing a revolution of rising skills. On all measures of labour market activity, those with higher education fare better. (See Figure 22) In Canada, even during the worst of the recession, from 1990 to 1992, the number of jobs for people with a post-secondary degree or diploma increased by 181,000, a gain of 3.5 percent. All the net job losses during those two years were suffered by those with less training. For them, the number of jobs fell by 513,000 or seven percent. This trend will continue. Almost two thirds of the jobs created to 2000 will require more than Grade 12. This compares with 44 percent of existing jobs. In addition, almost half the new jobs are expected to require 17 or more years of education and training. Increasingly, levels of education, experience and training will dictate income levels, as well as type and length of employment. Despite the job gains for workers with post-secondary education, the numbers do not tell the whole story. For example, the numbers do not tell: • whether the job obtained was directly related to the field of study of the worker; • whether the worker was overqualified for the job; or • whether the work was part-time when full-time work was sought. While graduates’ success in the labour market depends on many factors, the type of program studied is now particularly important in predicting labour market success. A few decades ago, enrolling in almost any post-secondary program guaranteed a choice of job offers in the graduating year. But in today’s more complex and competitive world, a post-secondary diploma, certificate or degree is no longer a guarantee of employment. Clients need to be aware that just because a course is offered by a community college or private school doesn’t mean there’s employment for the graduates. Unfortunately, some people have invested time and money in training and have not gotten work. It is important for students and those returning to part-time or full-time studies to become informed consumers of educational services. Chapter 4 Labour Market Skills for a New Economy 109 Figure 22 Unemployment Rate by Educational Attainment * Includes trades certificate SOURCE: Statistics Canada, Labour Force Annual A verages (Catalogue 71-220 Annual) 110 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Results from the National Graduate Survey conducted by Statistics Canada for Human Resources Development Canada, can help to answer the following questions (Alfred and Skoda, 1994). • What major field of study should I take to prepare best for a job in the occupation of my choice? • Were graduates of this field of study able to find jobs? • What do past graduates think of their field of study? • Is it better to pursue a graduate degree or go job hunting with a B.A. or a college diploma? For example, with regard to finding jobs, the 1992 National Graduate Survey of 1990 graduates in Canada found that 94 percent of electrical engineering graduates at the bachelor degree level found permanent jobs after graduation while only 64 percent of political science graduates did. With regard to earnings, the survey results show that college graduates in computer science, system design/analysis working full-time averaged $31,200 per annum, while university bachelor’s graduates in English literature averaged only $25,700 per annum. Choosing The Right Program The responsibility for determining the quality and relevance of a program of study rests with the student. As with selecting a career or occupational goal, the task of choosing the right training program should be undertaken with a great deal of care and consideration. Some suggested selection criteria are: • Is the training program recognized by employers? • Do the instructors have recent industry experience? • Are the institution’s premises suitable for the training provided? • Is the equipment up-to-date and compatible with existing business and industry equipment? • Is the institution willing and able to provide the names and addresses of persons who have attained employment after completion of the program? • Does the cost, program length and course content compare favourably with those of similar programs in other institutions? • Does the institution make any effort to place its graduates in jobs after completion of the program? • Is the institution recognized and accredited by any industry or business association? Finding a Job Related to Field of Study Another important factor for clients considering an educational program is whether they will find a job in their field of study. Many programs teach job skills which can be directly applied to a specific occupation. Others provide a broader base of knowledge which can generally be used in many occupations such as communication skills. Graduates from programs that do not have a direct link with a Chapter 4 Labour Market Skills for a New Economy 111 particular job, such as undergraduate degrees in arts, humanities and many social science programs, may be forced to seek employment in a range of occupations which may or may not be related to their field of study. Similarly, graduates from programs that do have a direct link with an occupation may have to find employment in unrelated jobs if the demand for workers in that occupation is low. Therefore, National Graduate Survey outcomes should be used with other career planning tools. For example, the Job Futures publications give employment prospects for hundreds of jobs in Canada and for some provinces as well. Clients should be encouraged to research the relevance and quality of any prospective program. This includes calling some companies and asking if they hire graduates from the program under consideration. It is also a good idea to: • talk to a program instructor and ask about the placement rates of the graduates; • talk to recent graduates; and • refer to any follow-up surveys done by the institution itself or by provincial ministries of advanced education. Becoming an informed consumer of educational services is an important skill to develop because the need for skill upgrading or retraining will occur regularly for workers in the new economy. Counsellors and teachers should also help to dispel the popular myth that colleges and universities are the only road to success and that technical institutes or apprenticeships are for those not smart enough for university. John Walsh has found that although 70 percent of Canadian students are oriented to post-secondary education, the expectations do not reflect reality. Only one third to one half of students who expect to attend college or university actually end up doing so. (See discussion in Chapter 6, Education and Training Options.) Overall, results from the National Graduate Survey show that graduates with specific technical skills fare better in the labour market. Is there a shortage of Canadian workers with technical skills? According to several human resource sector studies done for Human Resources Development Canada, there is. • I he environment industry report points to the 2,019 engineers and the 2,956 engineering technicians and technologists who collected unemployment insurance benefits in 1990. They believe that this is the pool of technically trained people available in the labour market which has the potential to fill the needs in the industry if they were retrained or upgraded. • I he aircraft maintenance industry suggests that, with their past areas of recruitment shrinking (the military, Transport Canada School graduates and immigrants), the answer seems to be in trying to keep the workers who may leave 112 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information the industry. In spite of the current aviation industry slowdown, Price Waterhouse estimates there will be a need for 11,000 to 14,000 new skilled workers by the year 2000. The aviation study states that a lack of high school mathematics and physics is the most-cited barrier to entering the field. • Employers in the software industry unable to hire all the software workers they want, cite “wrong skills” as the principal cause. Industries, in general, are not attributing their shortages to a lack of people alone or to a lack of skills alone but to not enough people with the right skills. The right skills are technical, scientific and specialized business skills, with a solid base in mathematics. Effective consumers will need to carefully evaluate whether the knowledge and skills being offered by educational and training programs match the specific requirements of employers. Skill #2: Develop Generic Employability Skills While the specific or general academic and technical skills gained from post­ secondary education or on-the-job training are necessary, generic or transferable skills are at least as important as technical expertise. In their guide to employability skills, The Conference Board of Canada (McLaughlin, 1992) has developed a list of transferable generic skills that employers are beginning to demand along with the necessary technical skills. It lists generic skills, qualities, competencies, attitudes and behaviours that employers are looking for in new employees who are technically qualified. The employability factors can be grouped into three categories of foundation skills. • Academic Skills. People who can communicate, think and continue to learn all their lives. • Personal Management Skills. People who can demonstrate positive attitudes and behaviours, responsibility and adaptability. • Teamwork Skills. People who can work with others. Chapter 4 Labour Market Skills for a New Economy 113 Conference Board of Canada EMPLOYABILITY SKILLS PROFILE: The Critical Skills Required of the Canadian Workforce Employability skills are the generic skills, attitudes, and behaviours that employers look for in new recruits and that they develop through training programs for current employees. In the workplace, as in school, the skills are integrated and used in varying combinations, depending on the nature of the particular job activities. Academic Skills Those skills which provide the basic foundation to get, keep, and progress on a job to achieve the best results Personal Management Skills The combination of skills, attitudes, and behaviours required to get, keep, and progress on a job and to achieve the best results Teamwork Skills Those skills needed to work with others on a job and to achieve the best results Canadian employers need a person who can: Communicate • Understand and speak the languages • Listen to understand and learn • Read, comprehend, and use written materials, including graphs, charts, and displays • Write effectively in the languages in which business is conducted Think • Think critically and act logically to evaluate situations, solve problems and make decisions • Understand and solve problems involving mathematics and use the results • Use technology, instruments, tools, and information systems effectively • Access and apply specialized knowledge from various fields (e.g., skilled trades, technology, physical sciences, arts, and social sciences) Canadian employers need a person who can demonstrate: Positive Attitudes and Behaviours • Self-esteem and confidence • Honesty, integrity, and personal ethics • A positive attitude toward learning, growth, and personal health • Initiative, energy and persistence to get the job done Responsibility • The ability to set goals and priorities in work and personal life • The ability to plan and manage time, money, and other resources to achieve goals • Accountability for actions taken Adaptability • A positive attitude toward change • Recognition of and respect for people's diversity and individual differences • The ability to identify and suggest new ideas to get the job done-creativity Canadian employers need a person who can: Work with Others • Understand and contribute to the organization's goals • Understand and work within the culture of the group • Plan and make decisions with others and support the outcomes • Respect the thoughts and opinions of others in the group • Exercise "give and take" to achieve group results • Seek a team approach as appropriate • Lead when appropriate, mobilizing the group for high performance Learn • Continue to learn for life Source Employability Skills Profile: What Are Employers Looking For? (McLaughlin, 1992). the three categories of generic employability skills are discussed below. Generic Employability Category: Academic Skills from clerical workers to air traffic controllers, mathematics skills are essential. Virtually all employees will bo required to maintain records, estimate results, use 114 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information spreadsheets or apply statistical process controls as they negotiate, identify trends or suggest new courses of action. Upgrading mathematics skills is of particular importance to women whose background in the subject may have been limited by their own actions or the influence of others, e.g., stereotypes of female capacities. All workers must be able to come up with innovative ways to meet a customer’s needs, anticipate problems and find solutions. Even those employees who don't ordinarily deal directly with What information can career customers should keep the customer counsellors take from the new in mind and stay current with regards business trends and pass on to to market trends. their clients? • Problem solving for customer satisfaction is something you will have to do. • Expect to make more decisions on the job. • Train yourself to work in a team. • Use the employment interview to talk about your knowledge of customer service. • Learn leadership and presentation skills. • Expect to be continually training onthe-job. • Raises in pay will likely be based on skills or knowledge acquired, not by moving up the organizational ladder. The room at the top is diminishing and organizations are spreading laterally, yet still looking for ways to motivate employees. This includes basic computer literacy which means using a computer keyboard on a daily basis to work with word processing, spreadsheet or other software programs such as those used in accommodation and food services. Similar considerations affect those who wish to work on cars for a living or those who want to pursue a career in the arts, such as multimedia or music — two fields very much affected by technological change. While lifelong learning is essential in the high-tech sector where a worker can be outdated in three to five years, almost all occupations now require that learning be an ongoing process. Clients and students must understand that all workers must continually upgrade their knowledge in order to stay current with new technology or techniques. It is estimated that workers and students will go from school to school, from school to work, from work back to school and from retraining back to work in an ongoing lifelong cycle. Chapter 4 Labour Market Skills for a New Economy 115 Workers must act like people in business for themselves by maintaining a plan for career-long self-development. Generic Employability Category: Personal Management Skills As our work force expands to include an increasing proportion of minority groups and, as the global economy brings countries together in planning and sharing ideas for improved production and service, a complexity of cultural values will need to be addressed by employers and career practitioners. Employers will need workers who can communicate with companies in many different countries. Understanding customs and traditions of other countries will become a valuable commodity in a worker. In order to keep these valuable employees, companies will need all workers to appreciate the knowledge and contributions of those who have a different cultural background. ZAP You’re Stupid “Half the skills of technical workers become obsolete within three to seven years of completing a formal education," says the Canadian Labour Market and Productivity Centre. In other words, the half-life of knowledge is three to seven years, says futurist John Kettle. As Mr. Kettle projects, if you're one year out of college, you will have already lost nine percent of what you learned (if the half­ life is seven years) or 21 percent if the half-life is three years. In the most rapidly changing fields — such as biogenetics — most of what you know will be wrong in four years. “Unless you act like a student for the rest of your life while keeping your job going, you’re going to be hopelessly out of touch,” Mr. Kettle says, “or have to go into management.” SOURCE: “Zap You’re Stupid,” Globe and Mail, October 28,1994. In schools that once taught a majority of white, Canadian-born students, counsellors and teachers are having to sensitize themselves (and the student body) to students from a wide variety of cultural backgrounds. Preparing all students to find a work force niche that encompasses their varied and unique values is a major challenge. Practitioners working with young people will have to broaden their scope of awareness and acceptance of cultural patterns. They may see widely varying amounts of parental influence on career decision making, or they may have to deal with many kinds of sex-role stereotyping in occupations. Some of their students may believe that certain jobs are only for men or only for women, while others may not care and demand to try out for the job. Cultural variances will also affect the willingness of students to go out on a cold call lor information, particularly in a case of a young woman going to a male employer's office for an information interview. The ability to look a person in the eye when talking can mean different things in different cultures. 116 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information In the case of student placements, the practitioner can do a lot to educate an employer to understand why two women come to the interview together when only one is interested in a particular job, why certain students will look down when answering a question or why a student may say yes when no is really meant. This may be the first step toward understanding for an employer who has had no experience with other cultures. Many immigrants express a desire to be trained in any field that will allow them to make enough money to support their families rather than in a field which offers greater potential fulfilment or is best-suited to their interests. Practitioners may have to accept an alternate definition of fulfilment for some clients, when they say: “At this time in my life, I am fulfilled when I can feed and support my family.” Contrast this with the changing value being put on quality of life by many Canadianborn members of the work force in the baby-boom bulge. In an article in the April 13, 1993 Medical Post, Jeff Brooke commented on studies indicating doctors are working 10 percent to 20 percent fewer hours than they were 20 years ago, a trend likely to continue. He quotes Dr. James Silcox, admissions dean at the University of Western Ontario’s medical school: “The number of patients a doctor sees and the number of operations a day a doctor does have shifted as doctors take on more responsibility for [their own] family and personal life than they ever had before” (p-1)- There have been many lifestyle articles in the media focussing on the stories of high-level executives and professionals giving up their jobs to take something more fulfilling or something that would give them more time with their families. One highpowered executive quit his company and a six-figure salary to serve the environmental cause. In order to have normal work hours and to spend more time with his family, a corporate lawyer left his lawyer associates to take a job with the government at a drastic cut in pay. Practitioners may find themselves serving more mature clients trying to work through this type of difficult decision. At the same time as a large portion of the middle-aged work force is looking for more leisure and family time, companies are revising their missions toward continuous improvement. They are implementing Japanese methods of management requiring employees to adapt to new company values of giving customers more than they expect. In order to attract employees who are willing to take on more responsibility and make more decisions, employers will have to consider the culture and values of the employee. This may mean offering customdesigned compensations comprising a combination of money, status, flex-hours, daycare and extra time off. Chapter 4 Labour Market Skills for a New Economy 117 Generic Employability Category: Teamwork Skills It is estimated that workers need to work on teams 80 percent of the time and lead only 20 percent. Management expert Peter Drucker (1992) describes three Managing Diversity team models. • The Baseball Team: Each player separately fulfils a specific role, and assumes other players will co­ operate by doing the same. The oldstyle U.S. auto industry, with rigidly defined roles, was set up on this model. • The Symphony Orchestra: Players hold specific positions and are directed by the conductor at all times. The Japanese used this model in the 1970s. • The Jazz Quartet: Each player is very familiar with the other group members, and they play to complement one another with no outside direction. Since each player covers the shortcomings of other players, this team is greater than the sum of its parts. Over 70 percent of new work force entrants between now and the year 2000 will be women and visible minorities. Given this trend, many organizations are beginning to train their management and supervisory staff in managing a diverse work force. This type of training is being driven by business needs, not by the notion that it is “the right thing to do.” In fact, some Canadian companies have gone so far as to include diversity management in their mission statements. Managing diversity includes looking at organizational systems, structures and management practices in order to eliminate barriers that keep all employees from reaching their potential. This may include an examination of how employees are recruited, evaluated, developed and promoted. Managers are trained to realize how subtle or unconscious prejudices and biases can affect employees of targeted groups. Managing diversity training is not employment equity, it is the logical next step. Managing diversity is also not the same as “valuing diversity.” Valuing diversity teaches people how to appreciate individuality through awareness raising; the focus is changing attitudes. Managing diversity, on the other hand, looks at changing systems, structures and manager’s behaviours. With innovations in information technology allowing everyone on a team to access information, companies Coaching prospective labour market entrants can now move to the jazz quartet to develop the attitudes and abilities to model. However, a jazz quartet support the new organizational culture and requires higher skill levels, including appreciate diversity will give them a an ability to: competitive edge in the new economy. • switch focus rapidly from one task to another; SOURCE: Training and Development, 1991, Expenditures and Policies. Conference Board of • work with people with very Canada, (McIntyre, 1992, p. 13). different vocational training and mind sets; • work in situations where the group is. the responsible party and the manager is only a co-ordinator; • work without clear job descriptions; and • work on several projects at the same time. 118 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information The excerpt on the following page is from Occupational Outlook‘s (Alfred, 1994) issue on careers in tourism, and it illustrates how generic employability skills are needed in specific job duties in food services. Chapter 4 Labour Market Skills for a New Economy 119 Rising Skill Requirements Employability Skills - What Tourism Employers Look For As tourists become more sophisticated and demanding in their tastes, customer service skills are becoming increasingly important. For example, the mature market, those people age 50 or over, has become a major segment of the travel market. The mature market wants “unique travel experiences” that stress historical, educational or cultural elements. In addition, customer service is very important to this group. What this means for tourism workers is the ability to: - develop specialized produce knowledge; and - anticipate and respond to customers’ needs. Like other employers, tourism employers need: - people who can communicate; - people who can think and who show a willingness to continue to learn throughout their lives; - people who can demonstrate positive attitudes and behaviour, responsibility and adaptability; and - people who can work with others. In addition to customer service skills, continuing technological change requires computer literacy. For example, close to half of all medium­ sized lodging facilities now have some type of computerized property management or inventory control system. Occupational Standards and Certification Standards are statements set by industry describing the knowledge, skills and attitude required of an individual to be considered competent in an occupation. Certification is a process whereby individuals are recognized for meeting standards through an evaluation of their knowledge, skills and attitude. Certification allows for transferability between jobs and can improve opportunities for promotion. Standards and certification programs developed in one province are recognized in another. The following table shows how these generic employability skills translate into work-ready skills needed for employment and career progression in food services. Skills Needed Example of Specific Job Duty Working with Diversity - Participate in team training and problem-solving session with multicultural staff of servers. - Three people cannot work an evening when a local club has reserved the restaurant for a party and the team has to address the staffing problem. - Prepare to handle possible complaints about prices, food quality or service. - Write weekly menu and print it with desktop publishing software. - Learn to use a computer spreadsheet program to estimate the food costs of alternative menus and daily specials. - Analyze the average and maximum wait from the time customers sit down until they receive the appetizer and then the entrée. - Modify the restaurant’s procedure to reduce both the average and maximum time by 20 percent. - Determine the expected increase in the number of customers served. - Develop cost estimates and write proposals to justify the expense of replacing kitchen equipment. - Develop schedule for equipment delivery to avoid closing restaurant. - Read specifications and listen to sales representatives describe three competing ovens for the kitchen. - Write a report evaluating the ovens and make a recommendation. - Set the automatic controls on the chosen oven to prepare a simple dish. Teamwork Customer Service Computer Lifelong Learning Math/Analytical Problem Solving Reading/Listening Writing/Decision Making Reading Manuals SOurce Pacific Rim Institute of Tourism, adapted from What Work Requires of Schools, Washington, U.S. Department of Labor, 1991. 120 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Skill #3: Realigning Expectations Perhaps the most crucial adjustment to working in the new economy is in individual attitudes. For example, a positive attitude toward change is needed for success. This includes accepting the fact that getting one job and staying with one employer until retirement is the wave of the past and unrealistic for most workers today. Not surprisingly, the old world of standard employment has been idealized because it has much to offer. It is important to realize that being able to see the positive aspects of non-standard employment or at least to accept it, takes some adjustment. According to William Bridges (1994), the research demonstrates how destructive it is for those in positions of power or prestige to feed people's natural denial with hopeful talk about a job crisis being nearly over or not being as bad as people think. Practitioners and clients should not block out the healthy reactions of anger and fear they feel in response to losing the future our society has been promising people. At the same time, those providing career services need to inform clients and students of the realities of today's labour market so clients can move beyond the paralysis created by denial, anger and fear. Skill #4: Develop Entrepreneurial Skills and Outlook As pointed out in Chapter 2, employment growth will be in non-standard work. This means that workers will need business management, marketing and networking skills. In fact, developing an entrepreneurial outlook is essential in the new job market, even if it’s work with an established company that is desired. The best technical or academic skills will get workers nowhere if they can't market themselves. Finding and doing work in a world without clear-cut and stable jobs means knowing how to: • start your own company; • generate your own job and your own work; and • manage yourself. The increasing number of women operating small businesses is discussed in the following textbox. Chapter 4 Labour Market Skills for a New Economy 121 Study Finds Women Run 39 Percent of Small Businesses Women now own and operate 39 percent of small businesses in Canada, a study by the Canadian Federation of Independent Business (CFIB) has found. And in the under-35 age group, the figure rises to 44 percent. That number is of particular interest, said Catherine Swift, the group's executive vice-president, because “this is the vital period when people are developing their career patterns.” The CFIB study did not find data to either confirm or contradict the idea that women have a higher success rate in business than men, Ms. Swift said. “What we did find, is that women have a tendency to take a more cautious approach when deciding to go into business on their own.” They do more research on the potential of their products, and they are more inclined to seek professional advice. But while women own 39 percent of small businesses, they collect only 28 percent of the income generated by small businesses. The study suggested that this may be because some female entrepreneurs tend to be concentrated in lower-return parts of the service sector, their businesses are newer, or they devote less time to work as a result of family responsibilities. More than 84 percent of self-employed women reported that they worked in the service sector, including finance, real estate, communications, trade and other services. The other 16 percent were in the goods-producing sector, including manufacturing and agriculture. About one quarter, overall, could be considered managerial or professional. Skill #5: Career Decision-Making Skills It has been estimated that young people entering the labour force will work in seven to eight different jobs throughout their career, with two job changes resulting from involuntary layoffs. Therefore, good career decision making is an essential skill. Clients need to learn the three steps of career planning: • self-assessment; • knowing what the labour market needs and wants; and • career exploration. As already mentioned, a few decades ago, graduating from almost any postsecondary program guaranteed a choice of job offers. Getting out there and “selling yourself and your skills" was not as important as in today’s more complex and competitive world, where there are no guarantees. 122 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information So, given the competitiveness of today's labour market and the need to sell one's skills on a regular basis, a higher motivational level is needed than in the past. That is why a thorough self-assessment to discover the best occupational area to pursue is crucial. A client who discovers what he or she really wants and is good at — and balances this with what the labour market needs and wants — is far more likely to have the motivation level needed to succeed in today's economy. Skill #6: Self-Reliance Skills As pointed out in Chapter 1, increasing levels of non-standard employment signal the end of an age of big corporations and governments acting as employers who provide health and pension benefits for millions of people. For the increasing numbers of practitioners who include a life-planning approach in their career development work, the work of Frithjof Bergmann may be of interest. Bergmann, a professor of philosophy at the University of Michigan and Director of the Centre of New Work, says our current crisis is a result of job shortages and polarization. He is convinced that the growing elimination of secure, long-term employment (for practically everybody) is not a temporary phenomenon and will even extend into service jobs. He says we are witnessing the collapse of the entire employer-based job system and that it must be changed if we are to avoid the inevitable violence that results from a growing disparity between rich and poor. Among Bergmann’s strategies (1994) to augment the current employer-based job system is the notion of high-tech self-providing (HTSP). Because unemployment and underemployment are becoming a way of life for more and more people, HTSP can be taught as a strategy for reducing dependence on the job system and for achieving a fulfilling and meaningful life despite the decline in traditional jobs and job security. HTSP would teach self-reliance and the practical skills involved in providing, in a direct, hands-on way for basic personal and family needs, including: • money management and financial planning; • home and apartment construction and maintenance; • gardening and food preparation; • furniture restoration; • appliance and auto repair; and • intelligent consumerism. These skills could be realized by taking advantage of how-to publications and videos, computerized information networks and community resources. Bergmann also advocates government policy changes that call for using government resources Chapter 4 Labour Market Skills for a New Economy 123 to encourage entrepreneurship and the ability to provide for oneself in an intelligent manner. Bergmann refers to this as “self-providing.” The goal of this approach to careers is not just a job, but a successful and purposeful way of life. It also calls for a societal shift in values, that is, the pursuit of a good life which is defined less exclusively in terms of income and acquisition. Bergmann admits his approach is revolutionary. Bergmann is careful to point out that the purpose of “self-providing” is not to make people "content with the dregs of an ungenerous, polarized economy. It is to arm them with a means of fighting back, a way of reducing their dependence on the current employer-employee system" (Bergmann, 1994, p. 61). “Self-Providing” Basic Concepts A good salary is not the sole determinant of economic success. There are many things people can do for themselves and their families which reduce their income needs. At a time when secure full-time jobs are being replaced by part-time and temporary employment, it is important for young people to learn how to become intelligent self-providers. Self-providing denotes direct involvement in providing for individual and family needs: food, clothing, shelter, home furnishings, appliances, transportation, recreation, education, health care, etc. Self-providing also includes household management and consumer skills: being disciplined and intelligent consumers, acquiring consumer goods wholesale, bulk, generic and second hand, budgeting for purchases, savings and investments, operating as CEO of our financial lives. Self-providers often band together to assist one another: in transportation pools, buying co-operatives, child-care associations, bartering and tool sharing arrangements, community gardens and joint entrepreneurial enterprises. Self providing harks back to the lifestyles of our pre-industrial ancestors, but takes advantage of modern technologies, information resources and support systems. SOurce Now Work for A New Generation, Detroit Educational Television Foundation (Bergmann, 1994) 124 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Skill #7: Research Skills In order to deal with less secure jobs, less union protection and downsizing, it has become necessary for workers to take responsibility for their own career decisions. The ability to investigate and search out information is a tool that will be used many times during a person’s career. The need for clients to develop research skills is important not only for career decision making but also in other areas of life. For example, as government downsizes and limits program spending, knowing how to access precious government resources and services in such areas as health care and consumer protection is important. Chapter 4 Labour Market Skills for a New Economy 125 C. WHERE TO FIND MORE Some Sources on Labour Market Skills and the New Economy Business Perspectives on the Economy, # 2 - Short on Skills: Skills Shortages and the Canadian Economy. Alison Pipa, 1989. Canadian Labour Market and Productivity Centre, 6-66 Slater Street, Ottawa, Ontario K1P 5H1. One of a series of papers that examines key issues of interest to the business community, published by the CLMPC. The Changing Workplace: Career Counselling Strategies for the 1990s and Beyond. Carl McDaniels. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1989. New Work for a New Generation. Fritz Williams and Colleen McGeen, Detroit Educational Television Foundation, 1994. To order copies of New Work for a New Generation and television programs from the CITY FOR YOUTH New Work series or to request information about New Work, contact the President's Office at WTVS Channel 56, 7441 Second Blvd., Detroit, Michigan 48202 Tel: (313) 876-8105. Occupational Outlook. Human Resources Development Canada, B.C./Yukon Region, Economic Services Branch, P.O. Box 11145, Royal Centre, 1055 West Georgia Street, Vancouver, British Columbia V6E 2P8. Tel: (604) 666-8365. Quarterly publication with articles covering choosing and changing jobs, trends, skill changes in the economy and occupational review. 126 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Chapter 5 LABOUR MARKET INFORMATION FOR CAREER DECISION MAKING A wide range of people make use of labour market information (LMI). • Businesses use LMI to plan for a future that includes overseas trade by choosing new markets or moving production out of the country. • Industries use LMI to project occupational needs and plan where to recruit the best candidates for their jobs. • Statisticians and economists use it to monitor the state of the economy, industry, occupations and even social trends. • Government may use it to form new employment or unemployment insurance policies. Labour Market Information (LMI) LMI is information concerning conditions in, or the operation of, the labour market. This information may be statistical or narrative in character. It may relate to historical, current or projected circumstances. Particular types of labour market information include data on employment and unemployment, job vacancies, qualifications, compensation, working conditions, etc. SOURCE: The LMI Handbook, 2nd Edition (Human Resources Development Canada, 1990a). • Educational institutions may use LMI in their career guidance to make quotas for programs or to start new programs. • Members of the labour force (or potential members, like students) may use LMI to help decide where to locate geographically or which branch of a particular occupational field to enter. This chapter surveys LMI that is useful in a job search or in career decision making, including national, regional and local LMI sources. Chapter 5 Labour Market Information for Career Decision Making 127 Using LMI in Career and Employment Counselling The vast amount of information available and the need to have specific information to make informed choices in an ever-changing labour market have led to a basic change in how a counsellor counsels. Many clients expect to get answers from the practitioner. It is impossible for one person to know all the information across all occupations, so those providing career services are becoming information brokers, steering clients and students to different sources that suit their need for individualized information. Although practitioners cannot know all the answers, they must be aware of all the facilities for clients or students to find the answers they need. The counsellor or teacher is only the first step in a series of places the wouldbe labour force entrant has to go. Accessing LMI To access the appropriate LMI for a client, two factors must first be determined. • Where is the client willing to seek work (local community, province wide, Canada wide)? • Is the LMI intended for use in an immediate job search, or for long­ term career planning? Practitioners, clients and students entering the world of labour market information have three tasks to complete together. • The practitioner will first help the client or student identify her or his informational needs. These needs may revolve around job titles and occupational families, location and costs of education and training programs, salaries and benefits, union or non-union memberships, standards and certification, geographical location of jobs, etc. • After the practitioner has guided the client or student in sorting out specific informational needs, sources for the answers to the questions have to be located. The practitioner will have some knowledge and information on hand and will also give ideas of where to go for tailor-made answers. Specific sources of labour market information are suggested at the end of each chapter in this book. Encouraging the client or student to develop research skills will result in a more thorough job search and will benefit, in the long term for the next, inevitable job search or career change. • The third way the practitioner helps a client or student is to teach him/her to evaluate the gathered information. It is important to remember that statistics and projections are very useful guides; however, most labour market data are based on a sample representing a whole population. Error is a factor to consider and so is constant change due to policies, economics and human values. Often, published data is out-of-date by a few years, but looking at data over a 10-year span can show a general trend. Up-to-date information is becoming more accessible due to electronic data gathering and reporting. 128 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information The client or student then moves on to the final step — the action role — in the career decision-making process. He or she makes use of the information, for example, by enrolling in a program, becoming an apprentice, applying for a job, arranging for specialized training or moving to a geographical location where there are more opportunities. The addition of labour market information to the process of career decision making encourages an additional set of questions beyond the in-depth analysis of personal aptitudes, values and interests, and the study of what job or occupation description best develops those personal interests and aptitudes. Clients and students should now incorporate questions, such as the following, into their career decision making. • Does the present situation represent the future situation? • What predictions are reliable? • Where can I find further information to support or refute these predictions? • Is a particular article biased to make an argument for a lobby group? • How will consumer behaviour affect opportunities? • What public policies will impinge on this career? • How many workers are already in this field? • How many new workers will be needed in the future? • How will technology change the industry? • What is the next most likely position to move into? • Is this occupation mobile across the country? • From which training programs do employers prefer to hire? Some of the above questions are from Improved Career Decision Making in a Changing World (Ettinger, 1991) and Occupational Outlook (Alfred, 1992). Basic research and analytical skills — including the ability to ask the right question to get the information — are necessary for effective career decision making. Those providing career services need to develop strong research skills to locate appropriate sources of labour market information, both published and unpublished sources. More importantly, they need to pass on these same basic skills to their clients and students. This way, the practitioner will be providing a lifelong skill that will be used many times during a client’s career. Chapter 5 Labour Market Information for Career Decision Making 129 Survey of LMI Resources Statistics Canada and Human Resources Development Canada (HRDC) are the two major sources of government labour market information. Both departments produce information at the national, regional and local levels. Much of the raw data used by HRDC comes from Statistics Canada's Labour Force Survey (LFS). The LFS is “a monthly survey (sample) conducted by Statistics Canada designed to represent all persons in the population 15 years of age and over. The survey is used to determine the unemployment rate, number of employed and a variety of other statistics. The interviews for the survey are carried out in approximately 52,800 households across the country” (LMI Handbook, Oct. 1990, p. A2-4). Other Statistics Canada sources used by HRDC and other government departments are the Censuses of Canada, The Labour Market Activity Survey (LMAS) and The Survey on Labour and Income Dynamics (SLID). To be useful as LMI, these data sources usually require further analysis such as that carried out by Tourism Canada on the following page. These data sources provide the basis for many Statistics Canada and HRDC publications useful in a job search and for career planning. 130 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Illustration of the Labour Market Activity Survey Tourism Canada used data from Statistics Canada's Labour Market Activity Survey to answer the question: Does tourism provide jobs for the unemployed? Tourism is recognized to be an industry with above average employment growth at a time when Canada is experiencing high rates of unemployment. A 1994 Tourism Canada study tracked the movement of 2.5 million Canadians in and out of unemployment between 1988 and 1990. Results show that over 13 percent of people who came out of unemployment found a job in tourism. This is 1.5 times greater than tourism's share of overall employment. The study showed that people who found work in tourism after unemployment: • came from a vast array of occupations, with less than one third holding a tourism job before unemployment; • found a tourism job quickly — half searched for four or fewer consecutive weeks before they started work — the most common method used to find work was to contact employers directly; • are exceptionally young (60 percent were under 25 compared to 43 percent of those who found work in non-tourism industries); • have low levels of formal education, which is partly explained by the young age profile of these workers who are only part way though their education; • were more likely to enter the food and beverage sector, followed by the accommodation sector; • were likely to be employed in a small business; • are predominantly women in accommodation/food, travel trade and attractions sectors; and • are predominantly men in adventure tourism/outdoor recreation and transportation sectors of tourism. The study concludes: Tourism has an impressive potential to provide more jobs and while all may not be of high quality or provide adequate compensation for those supporting families, they will offer work to people who have been unemployed, and for the young unemployed in particular, tourism offers a way back into the employed labour force. SOURCE: TOURISM CANADA: Study of Tourism-Related Employment & The Unemployed, for Industry, Science and Technology Canada (Mohans and Gislason, 1994). Chapter 5 Labour Market Information for Career Decision Making 131 A. NATIONAL LABOUR MARKET INFORMATION Human Resources Development Canada (HRDC) Job Futures, Vol I and II Job Futures is a product of the Canadian Occupational Projection System (COPS), a labour supply-and-demand information and data bank designed by Human Resources Development Canada. The fourth edition of this career outlooks guide is now in progress. Job Futures, Vol I: (Human Resources Development Canada,1990b) Altogether, information for about 200 occupational groups are described, including statistical data and descriptive and analytical text. Virtually every item of LMI discussed so far in this book or that is pertinent to career planning is included: • average annual growth rates; • number of job openings; • gender composition; • age composition; • full-time, part-time employment rates; • main industries of employment; provincial distribution of employment; • job description; • educational background and skills required; • types of people that normally enter the occupation; • job prospects; • the effects of technological change; • earnings; and • sources of further information such as industry associations. The occupational projections are based on data collected and analyzed through the Canadian Occupational Projection System (COPS). A disclaimer in the preface of the publication states: “Projections should be interpreted with caution since no one can say with certainty what the future has in store. These projections are not predictions of what will necessarily happen. Rather, they represent one possible path for occupational requirements.” However, in the writing of Job Futures, the insights of industry experts are sought and these are included in the narrative text, including any strong disagreement with COPS projections. I or more information on how to interpret COPS projections, refer to the examples used and explained in Section B of Chapter 3. 132 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Job Futures, Vol. II (Human The National Graduate Survey Most of the information presented in Volume 2 of Job Futures is based on results from the National Graduate Survey conducted by Statistics Canada. Volume 2 answers such questions as: • What major field of study should I take to prepare best for a job in the occupation of my choice? • What prerequisites do I need to be admitted to this field of study? • In which province is this course offered? • How long will it take me to graduate? • Were recent graduates of this field of study able to find jobs when they graduated? • What sorts of jobs did they find? • What are the possible links to other careers? • What do past graduates think of their field of study and their current employment? • Is it better for me to pursue post­ graduate studies or to go job-hunting with an undergraduate degree? • • • • Resources Development Canada, 1990b) While Volume 1 provides information on the current and future labour market situations for specific occupations, Volume 2 focusses on the link between the educational system and the labour market through analysis of the labour market outcomes for graduates from some 100 fields of study at the post­ secondary level. This is crucial information to use in the career planning process. As pointed out in Chapter 4, becoming an informed consumer of educational services is an important skill for clients and students to develop because the need for skill upgrading or retraining will occur regularly for workers in the new economy. Decisions concerning education include: • choosing the type of institution (trade/vocational, community college, university); • choosing the level of education (career program, undergraduate, master's, doctorate); and • choosing the actual field of study. Most of the information presented in Volume 2 is based on results from the National Graduate Survey conducted by Statistics Canada. For each field of study, there is a statistical profile as well as a narrative providing information on: the average duration of the program; the historical and projected numbers of graduates; the early labour market experience for these graduates; the major occupations in which they were employed two years after graduation; and Chapter 5 Labour Market Information for Career Decision Making 133 • reported movements between the third and fifth years after graduation. Such subjects as co-op education, part-time study and satisfaction with current employment are also discussed. The national Job Futures is also available in electronic format. Contact the labour market informational analyst at your local Canada Employment Centre for information. Human Resource Sector Studies Human Resources Development Canada sponsors these studies which, among other objectives, diagnose human resource problems in national industry sectors. For a human resource sector study, industry partners and other key stakeholders come together to identify their industry’s current and future human resource development challenges. The studies: • characterize workers and the organizations which employ them in Canada; • identify trends and factors shaping this group; • quantify demands for, and supply of, workers and skills; and • assess the training of the workers. The studies have information relevant to anyone wishing to enter that particular field and are referred to extensively in this book. The following table is based on findings of the environment industry sector study. It is intended to serve as an example of what can be found in these studies. (Other sample summaries are included in Appendix F.) The information can be a useful guide, providing clues about: • what to look for in an educational program leading to a particular occupation in that industry; • what to look for in a company that is globally competitive and economically healthy; • what questions to ask to impress the interviewers in a job interview; and • what skills to develop in a present job to allow an occupational change. A sample order form is also included. Up-to-date order forms and an update report for sectoral activities are also available at the address on the sample order form. All reports are available free of charge. 134 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Sector Study on the Environment Industry Canadian Council for Human Resources in the Environment Industry Trends, Developments or Technological Changes • Environmental legislation is driving demand for products and services. • • • • Implications for Human Resources or the Labour Market • There is a need for technical specialists, particularly engineers with environmental skills. It is difficult for the industry to keep up with all the technological and regulatory changes taking place. • Managers and employees need to upgrade their skills and knowledge constantly. Companies will have to expand the range of services and products and move from control to prevention. • There is a shortage of project management skills, particularly for site remediation projects. Canadian firms can expect competition from U.S., Japanese and European companies. • There is a need for an estimated 5,000 to 7,000 workers, of which 2,000 to 3,000 will be skilled workers. • Some of the specific skills and occupations which will likely be needed include: - Hydrogeologists: instrumental in the design and assessment of landfill sites, clean up of hazardous toxic waste sites, ground water contamination and site decommissioning. - Environmental Scientists: to perform environmental impact assessments and audits, and to manage site clean-up projects. - Air Quality Specialists: to gather and analyze air samples, as well as develop methodologies for air quality analysis, and implement solutions for air pollution control. • Employment of technically skilled environment workers outside the industry will increase an estimated two percent (300 to 400 workers) by 1995. Seventy percent of companies will actively recruit from universities, competing with the environment industry for graduates. Many segments of the industry have experienced recent rapid growth, in the order of double-digit rates. • Small fast-growing companies comprise the majority of firms in the industry. • There is a shortage of key technical specialists. • There is a declining enrolment in technical programs and a lack of understanding of the industry by youth. Chapter 5 Labour Market Information for Career Decision Making 135 Human Resource Sector Studies Mail Order Form ■ ■ A Call for Action - Human Resource Challenges in the Canadian Consumer Electronic and Appliance Service Industry Executive Summary (1993) LM-302 BiL Detailed Report (1993) LM-303 E_ F_ Canadian Automotive Industry (A Human Resource Study) (1991) Canadian Foodservices Industry (A Human Resource Study) Detailed Report (1991) LM-138 E_ F_ Summary (1990) LM-121 Bil._ Case Studies (1990) LM-122 Bil._ ■ Horticulture Industry - Organizing for the Future - Human Resource Issues and Opportunities National Report (1992) LM-218 E_F_ Quebec Region (1993) LM-256 BiL_ Ontario Region (1993) LM-257 Atlantic Region (1993) LM-260 Prairie Region (1993) LM-261 British Columbia Region LM-227 ■ ■ Human Resources in the Canadian Aircraft Maintenance Industry (1991) LM-132 E_F_ ■ Human Resources in the Canadian Broadcasting Industry Executive Summary (1992) LM-228 Bil._ Detailed Report (1993) LM-259 E_ F_ ■ Human Resources in the Canadian Commercial Printing Industry Summary Report (1991) LM-176 Bil._ Descriptive Annex (1992) LM-161 E_ F_ Detailed Report (1992) LM-145 E_ F_ ■ Human Resources in the Environment Industry Summary Report (1992) LM-233 Bil._ Detailed Report (1993) LM-267 E_ F_ ■ Human Resources in the Upstream Oil and Gas Industry — Changes - Challenges - Choices Vol. I: Report (1992) LM-225 E_ F_ Vol. II: Appendices (1992) LM-230 E_ F_ ■ Human Resources Study of the Canadian Marine Transportation Industry Detailed Report (1993) LM-262 E_ F_ ■ Software and National Competitiveness (Human Resource Issues and Opportunities) Executive Report (1991) LM-180 E_F_ Detailed Report (1992) LM-181 E_ F_ ■ The Canadian Pulp and Paper Industry: A Focus on Human Resources Executive Summary (1993) LM-258 BiL_ Detailed Report (1993) LM-231 E_ F_ LM-147 E_F_ ■ ■ ■ Bil._ Bil._ Bil._ Bil._ Human Resource Challenges and Opportunities in the Canadian Mining Industry Executive Summary (1993) LM-291 Bil._ Detailed Report (1993) LM-292 E_ F_ Human Resource Study of the Canadian Community Colleges and Institutes Sector Executive Summary (1993) LM-281 BiL_ Detailed Report (1993) LM-296 E_F_ Appendices (1993) LM-344 E_F_ Human Resources in the British Columbia Wood Products Industry Summary (1992) LM-229 Bil._ Detailed Report (1992) LM-222 E_ F_ Name:TeI: Title______________________________________________________________________________________________ Organization:________________________________________________________________________________ Address:______________________________________________________________________________ City/Province: Postal Code: Return To: Human Resources Development Canada Labour Market Outlook and Sectoral Analysis, Liaison Unit 140 Promenade du Portage, Phase IV, 2nd Floor, Mailroom I lull, Quebec KIA 0.19 I ax: (613) 957 2698 136 Attention: Carmela Giampaolo Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Industry Profiles Over 50 industry profiles are produced by Industry Canada. The topics covered range from “Management Consultants” to “Pet Foods.” While human resource issues are included, the primary focus is on the competitiveness of Canadian industry and technological factors. The complete set is available from Communications Branch, Industry Canada, Room 704D, 235 Queen Street, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0H5 Tel: (613) 954-4500; Fax: (613) 954-4499. Automated Job Centre: Job Bank As part of the Automated Job Centre in Canada Employment Centres, the National Job Bank (NJB) provides a listing of hard-to-fill jobs across the country. It is updated hourly. These jobs usually require special knowledge or skills. The NJB can also be found in locations other than Canada Employment Centres, such as colleges and job-finding clubs. Note, however, that the Job Bank lists include only those openings that employers report to HRDC for inclusion. Chapter 5 Labour Market Information for Career Decision Making 137 B. PROVINCIAL OR LOCAL LABOUR MARKET INFORMATION Regional Economic Services Branches Human Resources Development Canada (HRDC) The Regional Economie Services Branches (RESBs) conduct monitoring and analysis of labour force characteristics, occupational demand and supply conditions, and other labour market issues in their respective regions (i.e., the provinces). Because of regional differences, the focus of RESBs’ activities vary and result in distinctive regional data and information products. For example, fishing industry data in Newfoundland will be entirely different from fishing industry data in Saskatchewan. Canadian Occupational Projection System (COPS)/Job Futures Almost all regions produce their own version of Job Futures. The purpose of the Jot Futures publications is to apply the analytical tools and data developed through the Canadian Occupational Projection System (COPS) to occupational labour market trends specific to a province. While the content varies among regions, most LMI discussed so far in this book, or that is pertinent to career planning is included: • average annual growth rates; • number of job openings; • gender composition; • age composition; • full-time, part-time employment rates; • main industries of employment; • provincial distribution of employment; • job description; • educational background and skills required; • types of people that normally enter the occupation; • job prospects; • the effects of technological change; and • earnings. In using the COPS data, practitioners should remember that the numbers are projections and should be interpreted with caution since no one can say with certainty what the future has in store. Projections are not predictions of what will necessarily happen. Rather, they represent one possible path for occupational requirements. Another factor that practitioners need to be aware of is that the analysis and reported figures in Job Futures apply to the occupational title that normally represents an entire occupational group. However, a statement that applies to a group may not apply to each individual occupation within the group. For example, if a statement refers to art restorers, it does not necessarily apply to painting restorers, even though they are both a part of the Technicians in the Library, Museum and Archival Sciences group. 138 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information For more information on how to interpret COPS projections, refer to the examples used and explained in Section B of Chapter Three. Canadian Occupational Projection System (COPS) COPS integrates qualitative data from various sources with quantitative Statistics Canada census data. COPS uses this data to generate estimates of job growth based on the external economic environment, the domestic economic environment, fiscal policy, monetary and exchange rate, international trade policy and industrial assumptions. Here is an example of how COPS puts together economic assumptions and occurrences in the market to form an industrial projection for the pipeline transportation industry. First, statistics gathered show a steady rise in demand for natural gas, both in domestic and U.S. markets. Then, taking into consideration recent events, in this case the moratorium on building nuclear power plants in Ontario and the cancellation of a hydro-electric contract between New York and Quebec, it is assumed the demand will be supplied by natural gas-fired generating plants. This, in conjunction with expected strong gas exports to the U.S. west coast, enables the researchers at COPS to make the prediction that these factors should result in a robust capital investment in the pipeline transportation industry. But does the robust investment in this industry mean more jobs? Employment projections in an industry are based on behavioural equations which take into account worker productivity changes, output changes and capital investment. In this case an increase in output would lead to higher levels of employment but the increase of employment would not be a one-to-one match with the output since worker productivity would also rise. Other RESB Publications In addition to COPS occupational forecasts, individual RESBs also produce other information products. For example, B.C./Yukon produces the Economic Review, Ontario Region, The Occupational Quarterly, and Manitoba Region publishes High Demand Occupations jointly with Manitoba Education and Training, Labour Market Support Services. Provincial Ministries It is a good idea to check with provincial and territorial ministries for LMI. For example, many provincial ministries of advanced education and training are now performing their own surveys of college graduates and preparing follow-up reports. Chapter 5 Labour Market Information for Career Decision Making 139 In British Columbia, the Ministry of Skills, Training & Labour produces the B.C. College and Institute Student Outcomes Report and the Student FactPac. For a list of relevant ministries, including telephone and facsimile numbers, please see Appendix G. Libraries In the public library system, government LMI used to be catalogued under “government publications” which often made it difficult to locate. Now government LMI is included in the more easily recognizable subject headings: • employment forecasting — Canada (or region/province); and • labour market — Canada (or region/province). • All clients and students should be encouraged to acquaint themselves with the business section of the local library. It can be intimidating to some people, especially anyone who has been out of school for any length of time, but the directories and annual reports available are invaluable sources of LMI. • Even though newspapers are available at libraries, clients and students should be encouraged to subscribe to at least one daily newspaper and make reading it (especially the business section) a lifelong habit. • Material published by Statistics Canada is also available at Statistics Canada regional resource centres. (Assistance is available toll free for users who reside outside the local dialling area). Although much Statistics Canada material is too specialized to subscribe to on a regular basis, many quarterly publications, such as Perspectives on Labour and Income, Social Trends or Educational Quarterly, often have articles of interest. Clients and students undertaking an in depth investigation should consider Statistics Canada material in their search. Local Canada Employment Centre (CEC) A Labour Market Information Analyst (LMIA) is located in most Canada Employment Centres (CECs) and is responsible for information products related to local labour market conditions. For example, the National Common Products series provides LMI on current employment and occupational and industrial trends. Publications in this series useful to those providing career services are: • Occupational Summary, 140 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Informatioi • Occupational Profiles; • Area-Community Profile; • Industry Profiles; • Labour Market Review. Occupational Summary Where Do You Want to Live? Answering this question is one of the first things a client needs to do. For some occupations, geography dictates opportunity. Nevertheless, it is not uncommon to hear of people fleeing the stress or high real estate costs of big city life to move to a small, rural community only to find that there is no demand for their skills or expertise. Clients considering relocation should consult the LMI produced by the Canada Employment Centre in the area in which they want to live. A complete set of LMI products for the province are available in the career resource library of the local CEC. In addition to obtaining LMI, people considering relocation should also determine the cost and availability of housing. For example, in some areas of British Columbia, population growth has been so strong that affordable housing is next to impossible to find. Ideally, people should have a job and accommodation secured before relocating. This publication provides a wealth of labour market information for significant occupations in a local area. • Supply and Demand: For an indication of demand, a cumulative total for the last three months of job vacancies placed with the CEC and some others advertised in the local labour market for each occupation is given by NOC occupation code. For supply, an average for the last three months of individuals on Unemployment Insurance regular benefits gives an idea of the supply of workers in the local area. • Wage Ranges: This includes union and part-time ranges. • Census information: Information on the size of the employed labour force and the percentage of workers who work part-time provides information on the size of the occupation (and therefore is an indicator of opportunities from attrition) and whether the job is normally part-time or seasonal (an indicator of earnings potential). • Employment Trends/Outlook: covers any significant observation about the occupational group such as special education, skill sets needed, current developments that have an impact on the occupation and long-term growth projections. Chapter 5 Labour Market Information for Career Decision Making 141 • Indicators: Any special indicators for the occupation, such as skill shortage (where employers are actively recruiting) are noted. Good prospects (where a qualified person is most likely to find work within a six month period) are given and labour surpluses (where there are no job opportunities or a substantial pool exists of qualified, unemployed labour) are identified. Occupational Profiles Important components of this publication include: • a list of the main industry sectors in which workers are usually employed for the occupational group (this information is for the province or territory, based on the most recent census); • a count of the employed provincial labour force by age and gender for information on the composition of the labour force (see Chapter 1 for a discussion of relevance of information on composition of the labour force); • local attributes, working conditions, training and education requirements; and • professional associations are listed as a contact for more information on the occupation. Area Community Profiles This publication outlines basic socio-economic characteristics of the local labour market, including: • education facilities; • health facilities; • transportation and utilities; • public administration (levels of government); • accommodation; and • programs and services (i.e., CEC, Economic Development, etc.). Industry Profiles This publication provides a description of the industrial and employer composition of the local labour market area, including: • key industries; • major employers; • growth industries; • declining industries; • trends and patterns (i.e., structural, economic, demographic, etc.); • major projects; • impacts from technological change, global change, migration policy, etc.; and • geographical strengths and weaknesses. Labour Market Review I his publication is a regular economic narrative on the major trends and developments within the local labour market area, including: • activities affecting hirings and layoffs; • Statistics Canada's monthly Labour Force Survey data; • major projects; 142 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information • • • • downsizing industries/occupations; growth industries/occupations; trends (seasonal, economic); and information on CEC programs and services. Other useful information available for some local labour markets includes: • employer lists (including name and address) employing workers in specific National Occupational Classification (NOC) codes; and • employer lists by industry code. NOTE: Not all these reports are produced by every Canada Employment Centre. Check with the local LMIA for availability and remember, in addition to publishing reports, LMIAs act as resource people who can guide and direct practitioners to other or related sources of LMI. Other Sources of Provincial/Local LMI to Pursue • The presence of labour market information is growing on the Internet. • Major employers (especially in single industry towns) often produce information. • Business, union, professional and trade associations have information to offer. • Science councils will have information on science-related occupations. • The media (newspapers, futurist magazines/books, TV specials and employment forecasting books) often take a look at the labour market. Chapter 5 Labour Market Information for Career Decision Making 143 C. FINDING LMI FOR EMERGING OCCUPATIONS Multimedia: An Illustration of Finding LMI for Emerging Occupations How can a person find labour market information for emerging fields that are not yet coded and captured by government occupational classification systems and projections, such as multimedia, organic farming, forestry under new forestry renewal strategies to restore damaged forest lands and increase yields through intensive silviculture, complementary medicine, or in medicine using new technologies? This obviously takes more investigation and analysis. A fast and easy place to start is the public library with a review of newspaper and magazine articles on the subject. The following is an example of information on an emerging field — multimedia — that can be gleaned from current articles in a library. One emerging field that is capturing the interest of many young people is multimedia. It has already captured the imagination of telephone, cable television, communication and entertainment companies and has created a vastly changing multi-billion dollar world of digital convergence where computer, graphics, text, video film and sound merge on the desktop. Multimedia has applications in business, education and the entertainment industry. But neither “multimedia specialist” nor “digital engineer” is in the indexes of the National Occupational Classification (NOC) manual or Job Futures. Even the information provided in the recent sector study on the Canadian broadcast industry is limited (although promising). Post-production technology has changed considerably. The increase in the use of digital technology and computerization has helped to offset the high costs of some aspects of production. Realistic images can now be generated pixel by pixel to stimulate real characters and scenes, thereby blurring the distinction between reality and animation. For example, the ability to modify the appearance of a building explosion, through the use of computer technology, so that it can be used in different programming reduces production costs. This has resulted in the need for highly skilled computer technicians who are creative and understand the art of film-making. The work is so technically demanding that it is difficult to find people with the necessary skills. (Canadian Broadcasting Industry Human Resources Steering Committee, 1993, p. 81). Ten articles published in the Vancouver Sun newspaper between June 1994 and January 1995 reveal the following information for someone interested in the emerging field of multimedia with applications in the film industry. 144 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Status of the Industry: Canada • Tax incentives and government funding that built Canada's film industry are fading out, but prospects for the film industry have never looked brighter. • Throughout the recession, the film industry grew. Production of advertising took a hit, but production of corporate films, feature films and TV series continued strong. • New opportunities are opening up in TV, with nine new cable stations licensed in Canada this year and up to 150 new stations to be operating in the United States by 2000. • The Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) has approved the video game giant, Sega, to deliver its games into the home via cable (digital delivery). This opens the door for smaller Canadian firms to have a shot at exposing their games to a wide audience. A portion of the profits generated by the new Sega channel will go to an Interactive Entertainment Development Fund to help aspiring game designers. Nintendo of Canada has plans of its own to launch a similar service. Status of the Industry: British Columbia • The total number of feature film and TV productions from January to the end of November 1994 was 85, 12 more than in the whole of 1993. The net money spent in British Columbia in 1993 was $285 million, and the B.C. Film Commission estimates 1994 numbers at $350 million, with an added $50 million in post-production services, commercials, industrials and video. • The main reason American studio projects choose to shoot in Vancouver is the relative value of the Canadian dollar, but more often producers now say there are other factors, including uncluttered/natural locations and talented crews. • Most American movies and TV shows that film in British Columbia ship raw footage back to Los Angeles for post-production. Special effects, editing, scoring and credits are assembled in the United States. But post-production is starting to be done in Vancouver. The B.C. Film Commission isn’t yet tracking the impact of the new business, but the director says “the post-sound sector is doing some amazing things." And the situation could improve if there's enough qualified talent to do the work here. • The 3-D software industry is nearly a decade old, but recent breakthroughs in hardware and software development costs have spurred strong growth. Definition of Digital Imaging Digital imaging works on the premise that an image, or a series of images can be turned into electrical patterns — like a TV signal, or video magnetic recording — which can in turn be digitized, or turned into computer binary code. Once the image chapter 5 Labour Market Information for Career Decision Making 145 has been translated into computerspeak, it can essentially be manipulated into anything. For example, when Brandon Lee died unexpectedly on the set of The Crow, the director was left with gaping holes in the editing room. They needed Lee for seven more scenes. Digital engineers isolated Lee's face, digitally painted it onto a body double who walked through the action, and presto, Brandon Lee was alive and walking on screen. Applications: • interactive video games; • films and TV special effects/graphics/animation; • manufacturing for visualizing computer assisted design (CAD) data; • medicine for visualizing CAT scans; and • for forensic and legal reconstructions. Digital Delivery • Digital delivery can send everything from a full-length feature film, to a CD to a video game though the coaxial cable that hooks up to a TV — or the telephone wire that hooks up to a computer. • The real benefit of the “digital delivery” system is that it makes distribution more affordable by reducing the capital costs of printing electronic cartridges in Japan and abroad. Skill Shortages • Responding to a global shortage of video game designers, Nintendo of Canada Ltd. is helping to support a new school in Vancouver, the DigiPen Applied Computer Graphics School, to teach 60 students how to create video games. • Toronto-based, Alias Research Inc., one of the world's leading providers of film animation and special effects software (creators of the computer special effects for Terminator 2, and Jurassic Park), is investing $650,000 worth of special­ effects computer software in the Vancouver Film School's multimedia division to train computer animators. Alias has partnerships with about 40 schools worldwide because schools and students cannot keep up with the prohibitive cost of equipment. The Downside • Newspaper review of an article in The Economist (September 17,1994) concludes that while multimedia may be heaven for consumers, “it's shaping up to be hell for the industry,” because consumers are not likely willing to spend the kind of dollars that getting multimedia products in their home will cost. • Another of the newspaper articles quotes Bill Gates of Microsoft: “People talk about video on demand because it's one of the few things in multimedia for which you can predict a revenue stream. But it won’t generate enough revenue to pay for the infrastructure.” The article goes on to calculate that a nationwide video146 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information on-demand service in a country as large as the United States would need to generate $20 of revenue per week from each subscriber. The article concludes: “If the industry is ever to recoup the vast sums it is investing in computing, communications and interactive technology, its customers will have to do more than just trade in their cars for PCs: they will have to spend more on multimedia than they have ever done on TV, or films, or books, or CDs, or any other form of entertainment. Why should they?” • Research by SRI International demonstrates that new media such as data stored on CD-ROM and interactive computer use on a broad scale, are at least 10 to 15 years away. Although huge works, like encyclopaedias, are increasingly crammed into a small shiny CD-ROM disk, there are too many obstacles for the new media to quickly replace newspapers, books and paper reports. Impediments include the lack of infrastructure such as cable, high costs, complicated use and incompatibility of different media. Qualifications/Earnings for Work in Computer Special Effects/Digital Engineering • It takes a good computer background to get in and six years experience to earn $100 an hour. • A graduate from Sheridan College in Toronto can get US $80,000 to $100,000 U.S. straight out of school. Where is Work Available • There are only a handful of Canadian firms that design video games or develop 3-D animation software for the film industry. • A graduate is most likely to find work internationally. • Nintendo products are designed in Japan, the United States and Europe. Education • At the DigiPen Applied Computer Graphics School in Vancouver entry into the program for video game designer requires high school or college graduation with a B average or better in math, with both artistic and scientific abilities. Tuition is $8,500 a year for the two-year program. Graduates should be ready to join an existing game software company or start their own business. • The Vancouver Film School’s multimedia division offers computer animator program. Contact Names I he following organizations were cited in the articles (contact names were also provided). • Federally funded Centre for Image and Sound Research, Vancouver ( hapter 5 Labour Market Information for Career Decision Making 147 University of B.C.'s MAGIC (Media and Graphics Interdisciplinary Centre) B.C. Film Commission, Vancouver Nintendo of Canada Ltd., Richmond, B.C. Alias Research Inc., Toronto Sega of Canada Vertigo Technology Inc., Vancouver; developer of 3-D modelling and animation software for the film industry, 15 employees • Northwest Imaging and FX; digital post production house in Vancouver, has grown from three employees to 18 full-time and 15 free-lance employees since 1990 (Credits: X-Files). • Rainmaker Imaging Corp., Vancouver, 50 full-time staff; controls 50 percent to 60 percent of the video post-production market in British Columbia. A recent joint venture with Gastown Post and Transfer, will provide technical services, such as digital compression and high-end computer graphics, for producers and publishers of interactive programs. • Up and coming multimedia companies: Radical Entertainment Ltd. and Motion Works, Inc., Vancouver. • • • • • • References to Further Reading • The Economist, September 17, 1994 issue • The Futurist Magazine, January, 1994 Now the client has some contact names of businesses and organizations to start verifying the information and for finding out more. Enough background information has been gained to start asking intelligent questions about the industry and the jobs available. Some possible questions to investigate follow. • Companies/Experts. Were any of the articles biased for or against the industry or company? • Companies. From which schools or programs do you prefer to hire? What is the best way to break into the field? Who else should I talk to? • People Already Working in the Field. Are there any volunteer activities or entry-level positions possible to test out the waters before committing to the field/training? What trade journals, professional groups should I be aware of? • Schools. How have your graduates fared in finding jobs? 148 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information D. WHERE TO FIND MORE Some Sources on Career Counselling and the Labour Market The Changing Workplace: Career Counselling Strategies for the 1990s and Beyond. Carl Daniels, 1989, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Improved Career Decision Making in a Changing World. Editor Judith M. Ettinger, Garret Park Press, 1991. P.O. Box 190-B, Garret Park, MD 20896. Trainer’s guide and participant resource guide designed in module form to be user-friendly and serve all population groups. Includes: definitions related to career development and labour market information, demographic trends, theories of career development, extensive lists of American resources, needs of special groups in career counselling and applications and activists. Understanding the Labour Market: a handbook for practitioners. Published by the Information Development and Marketing Branch of the Alberta Advanced Education and Career Development, 1993. Includes: description of labour market terms, explanation of trends and forecasting, the working world — people, industry and occupations, explanation and definitions of standards, problems and trends in employment. Stability Within Change: Strategies For Career Counselling in the 1990s. Mildred Cahill and Sandra Martland. Paper presented at the National Consultation on Career Development 1993, Ottawa, January 1993, and published in NATCON 1993 Papers, University of Toronto Career Centre. Available from University of Toronto Career Centre. Tel: (416) 978-8011; Fax: (416) 978-8020. ( Chapter 5 Labour Market Information for Career Decision Making 149 150 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Chapter 6 EDUCATION AND TRAINING OPTIONS For companies to keep pace with the rapidly changing economy, business and industry agree that it is vitally important for education and training programs to provide present and future workers with the necessary knowledge, skills, attitudes and values. While students may think the knowledge gained in school is adequately preparing them for an occupation, they need to know that even fairly secure employees face a lifetime of continuous learning over the span of a career. Formal learning can be in the form of education, training or development. Bartz, Schwandt and Hillman make the following distinction between education, training and development. Education focusses on changing knowledge that will prepare the employees for their next position in the work field. Training focusses on changing knowledge [and skills] that will prepare employees for their next position within the firm, and development focusses on changing attitudes or values important to the organization to be used in future positions (Bartz, Schwandt and Hillmen, 1989, p. 164). The training and education that employees bring into the labour market determine what jobs they can perform, creating areas where there are either enough workers, too many or too few. The ability to provide the market continually with people who have the skills necessary to help companies grow and compete is crucial to building a healthy economy. The need of Canadian employers for workers who are highly skilled puts a demand on the educational institutions and training programs to produce such workers. The length of time it takes to train or educate someone can leave a lag of three or four years in the marketplace, if the demand has come up suddenly. During the slow economic growth cycle, there is not the frantic push for industry to produce because people are not buying in recessionary times. This is a natural time for training; however, in the down time, many employers cannot afford to train in anticipation of a future upswing. Long-range policies which incorporate continuous upgrading and training into corporate strategies and budgets are being developed by government and industry in an attempt to deal with the supply and demand of well-trained workers. Nursing has been particularly spotlighted because of the importance of health care in our society. It is one example of an occupation struggling between supply and demand. In the early 1980s, there was a shortage of nurses. One of the influences in this development was that many qualified nurses were choosing not to work in Chapter 6 Education and Training Options 151 their field. As the shortage became critical, colleges and universities raised their quotas for nursing students. Because of the time it takes to train qualified nurses, and the time it takes to change quotas in the institutions that train them, there has always been a lag in trying to adjust to the needs of the market. By the time the increased number of nurses were graduating, the situation was compounded by government cutbacks to hospitals and by the early ‘90s recession which caused many nurses to return to nursing or encouraged nurses already in the field to stay. The result was a surplus of nurses looking for full-time nursing jobs. Immigration is another area where the availability of properly trained people affects the labour market. Many foreign-trained professionals and trades people experienct a number of barriers including language training, having credentials recognized, and a lack of Canadian experience which prohibit them from working in areas of demand. As a consequence, the market has been left with openings that cannot be filled. With retraining, these people can be prepared for the Canadian labour market, and become active participants in the work force rather than becoming part of the discouraged worker statistics. The cyclical relationship between supply and demand for educated and trained workers and some intervening variables are shown in Figure 23. 152 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Figure 23 Supply and Demand for Educated/Trained Workers Chapter 6 Education and Training Options 153 A. EDUCATIONAL STRUCTURES THAT FEED THE LABOUR MARKET In the public domain, educational structures that feed the labour market vary, ranging from high school, to apprenticeship, to college and university. Entrance into the market can also be made through private vocational institutions, association accreditation or by training programs offered by employers, unions or social service organizations. Those planning to enter the labour market should prepare their route carefully. Hidden variables can interfere even with the best of plans. Those who are unfamiliar with the system or who don’t have a guide through it can miss out by not being aware of all the options or of the unwritten rules that will affect their opportunities. When the client or student’s situation is thoroughly investigated, it may become evident that any combination of factors such as cost, location, language barriers, family situation, physical abilities and learning style may require a custom-designed plan to get to the desired goal. The happy ending to Jocelyn’s story on the following page was due to the practitioner and client working out a plan that entailed a thorough investigation of aptitudes, interest, motivation, available resources and LMI. 154 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Finding the Right Path: Jocelyn's Story Jocelyn, a young, intelligent woman who was energetic, a good worker, motivated and had family support seemed to be the perfect candidate for a university program. In fact, all her teachers, her parents and the boss at her parttime job during high school urged her to go to university. Jocelyn came for career counselling a year after she had finished her final year of high school. Feeling very pressured, she had forced herself to finish school and had then gone to work, much to her parents’ disappointment. The aptitude test results showed her ability in all areas to be in the top 10 percentile, with some areas going off the scale. Her interest tests showed an entrepreneur with the lowest score on the “Comfort in Classroom Learning” scale the counsellor had ever seen. Jocelyn was working two jobs. She had been made manager of her part-time job and was training new staff. In the full-time job, because she had shown interest and had solved some problems for the owner, she had been given the books (on a computer program) to manage and had taught herself in record time. This young woman was motivated to learn and loved what she was doing. She wanted a goal, to know where she was headed and, together, she and the counsellor developed a plan that didn’t involve sitting in a classroom full-time in a lecture-style situation but capitalized on her ability to learn quickly and her love of applying what she learned. While continuing to work full-time, Jocelyn started taking a combination of correspondence courses and part-time practical courses that applied directly to her work. She received enough credits in this manner to motivate her to finish a financial management program in a regular, but part-time classroom setting. Her labour market research had shown good career prospects, with occupations in financial management showing above average growth. If the people involved are willing to put in the time, there is usually an alternative route to be found that respects the individualized needs of the person seeking help. Chapter 6 Education and Training Options 155 Universities and Colleges For those who are headed for university or college, a thorough investigation is necessary. Entrance requirements for a particular university program are not always what they appear. For example, they may be stated in the calendar as a minimum of 65 percent. However, due to the number of people who applied with higher percentages, the lowest average mark that was accepted the previous year could actually have been 75 percent. Another requirement that needs to be checked is the “recommended” course prerequisites in both universities and colleges. It may be that so many applicants have the recommended courses that no one has gotten in without them in several years. Clients and students should also know that their extra-curricular activities can influence their entrance into some universities and colleges. Volunteer or paid work in the field of interest can be a major benefit in many cases and, sometimes, political or social service involvement is of interest to an institution which is trying to boost student interest in school politics. CO-OP: Education With Career Relevance Co-op is short for co-operative education, a program that integrates paid work experience in a student's field along with academic studies. The name reflects the co-operative relationship between students, schools and employers. For the fortunate few who have a clear idea of what kind of work they would like to do, co-op provides a chance to get real experience before they graduate. For students who are unsure about their future career, co-op can be a tool for discovery, an opportunity to test interests, aptitudes and abilities in a variety of jobs. Results from The National Graduate Survey show that, in comparison with non-co-op graduates, graduates from co-op programs found that their programs provided them with more knowledge of career opportunities. Other benefits of co-op education include: • higher employment rate for grads in their chosen career/field of study; • employment is found sooner after graduation; • reduced student debt load; • graduates who are more satisfied with their salary levels and networking opportunities; • a lower student drop-out rate; and • graduates who develop improved interpersonal relations, self­ confidence and independence. Although Grade 12 or its equivalent is the minimum entrance into community colleges, high school graduates are competing more and more with university graduates. Graduates of general science and general arts programs are finding the practical training received in college is what can get them in the door to a job, and the university degree will give them the edge in advancement opportunities. College and institute programs, such as 156 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information medical laboratory technician, respiratory therapist, optician, broadcasting, early childhood education, business management, public relations and journalism, are popular choices for the degree graduates. The number of college applicants and the level of basic skills of some high school graduates have led to an increase in programs requiring entrance tests. Prior learning assessment (PLA) or experiential learning is a method used by colleges and universities to grant credit for learning outside the classroom. PLA is aimed at those who have gained substantial experience, often through employment experiences. It creates a formalized record of their learning experience and translates it into college credits and then applies it to a course or program. PLA should help potential students get into a program at the right level, avoiding repetition which is costly to the individual and the system. It enables members of the labour force to move in and out of employment and to transfer between colleges more effectively. A prior learning assessment project sponsored by the Council of Regents in Ontario has 10 pilot projects across Ontario. PLA is expected to increase access of the community to credentials. Colleges will move to a more learner-based delivery with more part-time access. To aid implementation, colleges will be obliged to reserve spots for PLA students. The program also must ensure that standards are maintained. Students have to meet admission requirements for both the college and the program. Their evaluation looks at course matches to give credits for specific courses. The assessment can be done in two ways — a challenge exam for single course credits or a portfolio of experience to challenge a level or group of courses. PLA is in a different state of development in each province. What some provinces call “prior learning assessment” others call “experiential learning.” The practice has been around for many years but there is a push to refine it, now that the need is increasing for continuous learning, and employees find it necessary to return to school to upgrade. Hidden entrance requirements that may not be apparent in reading a college of university calendar can affect graduates from general degree courses who want to go on to a professional course in university. Some of the following programs have a prerequisite of one or two pre-professional years of university, others require a full degree, yet the competition is so fierce that a full degree is often the real bottom line for entry into most of these programs. These professional programs include law, medicine, architecture, social work, dentistry, veterinary medicine, speech language pathology, physical therapy, journalism, library and information science, optometry, pharmacy, occupational therapy and teacher education. Chapter 6 Education and Training Options 157 Regardless of the educational path chosen, the learner's journey does not often lead neatly into employment in a related field. Social, economic and personal factors can lead to unexpected turns in the pursuit of education and career directions. Below, Erica’s story demonstrates how one young woman's post­ secondary education choices and her movements within the labour force were affected by the socio-economic elements shaping the labour market. Opportunities Lost and Found: Erica's Story This is the story of a woman whose career path wound its way around two recessions and time out for family. Erica started out with a university degree in archaeology just as Canada entered the recession of the early ‘80s. Over the next couple of years she looked for a job unsuccessfully, married and started a family, and soon after found herself a single mother. The only job she could get was as a photo-lab technician which did not pay enough to survive. Realizing that she would have to have a good job to support her family, Erica enrolled in an electronics technology program at a community college, sure that the practical training in a growing field would get her a job. But with a family to support now, her debts mounted and she had to drop out after two of three years. The job she was able to get upon leaving school was in a credit union for more remuneration than her photo-lab job. Unfortunately, the company down­ sized as the second recession emerged, and she was laid off. The next step Erica took in her quest for a productive occupation was to enter a 16-week re-entry program for careers in technology at a community college. When she finished the program, she had a direction — a turn in her career that combined her research and writing skills from university with her interest in technology: technical writing. After one semester in the technical writing program at the same community college, Erica was hired by a telecommunications company as a permanent, fulltime employee with security and benefits. She was making more than twice what she made at the credit union. Erica's story plainly illustrates labour market dynamics in action. The economy (in the form of two recessions), marketability of a specific occupation, the social trend toward single parenthood and the impact of technology were all labour market factors combining to shape Erica's career path. 158 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Trades/Apprenticeships An entry into the labour market which has been overlooked by most students is apprenticeship to the trades. It is a system of training, incorporating on-the-job learning with short periods of formal or in-school learning, leading to certification or licensing in the trades. Formal exams are required at several levels throughout the training process. In general, trades across Canada are regulated by the apprenticeship branch of each provincial government. There are about 290 trades covered by apprenticeship programs across Canada, but each province or territory has its own “designated trades” that are provincially/territorially regulated. The number of trades on the designated list is different in each province or territory. For example, there is a list of designated trades for each province in Ellis Chart, Comparative Chart of Apprenticeship Training Programs, (Occupation and Career Information Branch, HRDC, 1990). Ontario has 63, Manitoba 39 and Saskatchewan has 32. In each of the regulated trades, an apprentice may earn a certificate of qualification to become a fully qualified journeyperson. Students Considering a Trade: Points to Investigate A would-be apprentice should find out if the trade: • • • • • has a council actively involved in the business-labour-government partnership so it can lobby for issues important to that trade; actively encourages women to enter the trade and has a support system for them; is concerned with continuous upgrading and quality training; has ongoing liaisons with the educational institutions that do the in-school teaching to ensure that content is current; and has or is lobbying for national standards which will ensure quality in the trade and allow for worker mobility. ( Chapter 6 Education and Training Options Each province and territory has classified their designated trades as either voluntary or compulsory. Voluntary means a person can train and work in the field without certification, or can choose to write the exam and get a certification. Compulsory means that it is against the law to work in the trade without proper certification. In the case of the compulsory trades, since certification is a legal prerequisite to working in the trade, it is also a licensing process. The classification of trades varies by province and territory. For example, a motor vehicle transmission mechanic requires certification in New Brunswick and Ontario, while it is voluntary in Prince Edward Island. In hairstyling, certification is compulsory in Ontario, Saskatchewan and Alberta and is voluntary in Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, British Columbia and the Yukon. 159 Even though certification in a trade may not be compulsory, the industry can create a standard requiring certification for employment through unions or employer preferences. Therefore, although apprentices may not be required by law to write the exams, they may not find employment until they are certified. It is important to investigate this through the trade councils, apprenticeship branches and unions. General entry into an apprenticeship program is based on the completion of a provincially set grade level and employment in the trade. Community colleges in nine provinces provide the in-school portion of training for apprenticeship, while Quebec provides its training through the secondary school system. Some community colleges also provide pre-program preparation for a trade which can give the student enough knowledge and experience to encourage an employer to take him or her on as an apprentice. Some industries believe entry-level standards should also include clearly demonstrated skill and ability in the areas outlined in national standards to decrease attrition in apprenticeship programs. The Canadian Automotive Repair and Service Council has developed a draft proposal for national entry level standards. Other trades may follow if the results are positive in providing more qualified entrants into the trade. Some trades are non-regulated. Depending on the province or territory, these generally include such trades as: • cladding; • dental mechanic; • dental technician; • jewellery manufacture and repair; • office machine repair; • small engine repair; and • watch repair. These are employer-sponsored trades in which the employer has developed an in­ house training program, possibly in consultation with the provincial apprenticeship branch, but there is no curriculum set by regulation and no exam. The program is suited to the needs of the workplace, and the apprentice in these programs may not be recognized outside of the company training her or him. This is an area practitioners need to keep in mind in order to inform clients and students of alternative methods of getting extra skills training. Clients and students also need to be aware of the restrictions that go with non-regulated training. The Interprovincial Standards Program The apprenticeship system developed separately in each province or territory. This has resulted in different systems of training and certification and even different classifications (designations) of what is a trade. In order to provide greater mobility across Canada for skilled workers, interprovincial standards and exams have been developed for some trades. They are called Red Seal trades, and the bearer of the 160 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information certificate is recognized as qualified across Canada. An Interprovincial Standards Red Seal can be obtained through the following routes: • by graduating from a recognized provincial or territorial apprenticeship training program or by obtaining a journeyperson-level certificate from a province or territory; and • by passing the Interprovincial Standards Examination for that trade. The Red Seal is attached to the Journeyperson Certificate. Its holder can work and move freely from one part of Canada to another. The following table shows the Red Seal Trades. Red Seal Trades Baker Industrial Mechanic (Millwright) Boilermaker Lineman Bricklayer Machinist Cabinetmaker Motor Vehicle Body Repairer (Metal and Paint) Carpenter Motor Vehicle Mechanic Construction Electrician Oil Burner Mechanic - Residential Cook Painter and Decorator Electronic Technician - Consumer Products Plumber Floor Covering Installer Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Mechanic Glazier Roofer Hairstyling Sheet Metal Worker Heavy Duty Equipment Mechanic Sprinkler System Installer Industrial Electrician Truck and Transport Mechanic Industrial Instrument Mechanic Welder n an economy where there is a shortage of skilled workers, it is not surprising that several sector councils in the trades industries, e.g., tourism, broadcasting and automotive repair and service, are in the process of developing Canada-wide and, some cases, North America-wide certification to help maintain the quality they believe is essential to a successful, competitive industry. Chapter 6 Education and Training Options 161 The continual application of new technologies in the trades is a particularly significant factor in creating a need for ongoing skill development. From a report written in 1989 the Canadian Automotive Parts Industry is quoted as saying: Technological and organizational factors have been at the root of most of the changes in skill requirements. The direct impact of technological change (for example, learning to operate new equipment) is often only the tip of the iceberg. Secondary effects, such as literacy skills to read computer print-outs, or effective teamwork because of reconfigured production processes, often present more difficult training challenges (Steering Committee of the Canadian Automotive Parts Industry, 1991, p. 27). Attitudes, Perceptions Towards Apprenticeship The choice of apprenticeship does not start out on equal footing with other education and training options. In order to be a viable option, attitudes have to be open enough to allow objective consideration. According to several studies, young peoples’ attitudes toward and perceptions of, apprenticeship are biased. “Tell me, what are you going to do when you leave school?” is a question John Walsh, Ph.D., University of Guelph, asks in a presentation he does on the attitudes of students, parents, apprentices, journeypersons and employers toward careers in the skilled trades. The content of the presentation results from a southern Ontario study he did which had interesting results. • There was no depth of knowledge of apprenticeship programs or the nature of skilled trade work by students or parents. • There was an overwhelming orientation to participation in university or community college programs after leaving high school. • In spite of an acceptance of the positive attributes of skilled trade occupations, there was still a low expectation for participation in the trades occupations, especially by female respondents. • There is a strong advocacy potential among people actively involved in trades, and this movement would offer a good foundation for promotion of the skilled trades. Walsh found that although 70 percent of students were oriented to post-secondary education, the expectations did not reflect reality. Only one third to one half of students who expect to attend post-secondary institutions actually end up doing so. 162 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Student expectations did, however, reflect the pattern of parental expectations. Although parents exhibited a high awareness of the desirability and advantages of skilled trade occupations, they did not see them as relevant to their children. Studies show that students who become involved in apprenticeship show higher satisfaction than those who pursue other programs. Among groups of students surveyed after completion of college, university and apprenticeship programs, a significantly higher number of apprenticeship participants would select the same program again. And the salary range for people with apprenticeship training can 'each the range of some people with professional training. number of efforts have been made in recent years to attract more people to the skilled trades. Apprentices and journeypersons have identified four factors which /vould increase their numbers: • promotion of trades in high school; • stronger employer support; • improved image; and • increased apprentice income. Various initiatives are under way across Canada, to address these factors. Industry strategy for promoting the trades as an attractive choice of occupation is to portray the variety and challenge of a career in the trades. Individual trades are producing videos and posters for schools. Government is supporting women's access projects. Women in Trades and Technology (WITT), a national non-profit advocacy group, is active in the encouragement, training and promotion of women in trades and technologies. In the textbox Career Paths in Trades, two case studies illustrate the career path possibilities for apprentices willing to upgrade and retrain. In advising potential trade apprentices, practitioners may recommend that they contact the trade council, apprenticeship branch or union. WITT can provide information, speakers and mentors for women considering trades. Chapter 6 Education and Training Options 163 Career Paths in Trades Abby’s Road to Success in the Automotive Industry On completing an apprenticeship program and attaining journeyperson papers as an automotive technician, Abby went to work for a small repair shop where she then became a service foreperson. From there she moved to the position of chief mechanic at a large car manufacturer. She is now taking upgrading courses in the hopes of becoming one of the company trainers of other mechanics. Steven: Plans for a Career in Air Transportation Steven had always wanted to work with airplanes in some way. The specific job was not as important to him as being in the air transportation industry. His past interests, skills and experience involve physics and building model structures, including model planes. Steven met with a counsellor to discuss career plans and agreed with the suggestion that sheet metal worker/structuralist might fulfil his desires. The Job Futures publication indicated above average projected growth rates, and discussions with employers were encouraging. In planning his entry into the sheet metal trade, he found the options were through commercial, aircraft or military sheet metal training. From there, Steven would receive on-the-job training in the particular company where he was hired. As an aircraft worker, Steven could continue training to become Aircraft Maintenance Engineer Structure (AME-S) certified. This could lead to a shop foreperson position.. Movement into other aircraft trades would only happen through further training. Professional Associations - Certification, Registration, Licensing For those clients or students who cannot use any of the above routes into the labour market, there are some professional associations that provide part-time training courses through some community college and university programs. For instance, someone who cannot afford to go to college or university for accounting, can take association credit courses part-time to qualify for certified general accountant (CGA) which is a well-recognized certification and provides a good salary. The National Professional Associations textbox is not an exhaustive list, but lists examples of associations that provide training. It would be helpful for those planning a career in any of these areas to be made aware of the training possibilities. 164 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Some National Professional Associations Appraisal Institute of Canada Canadian Association of Certified Executive Accountants Canadian Association of Production and Inventory Control (CAPIC) Canadian Credit Union Association Canadian Condominium Institute Canadian Fire Alarm Association Canadian Hospital Association Canadian Information Processing Association Canadian Institute of Certified Administrative Managers Canadian Institute of Traffic and Transportation Certified Employee Benefit Specialist Program Certified General Accountants’ (CGA) Association of Canada Institute of Internal Auditors Certified Foodservice Manager Certification in Resource Management (CIRM) National Certificate Program in Volunteer & Non-profit Sector Management Institute of Canadian Bankers Institute of Chartered Secretaries and Administrators Insurance Institute of Canada International Foundation of Human Resource Professionals Personnel Association of Canada Real Estate Institute of Canada Transport Canada - Aviation Ground School, Air Traffic Controller - Introduction Trust Companies Institute of Canada Check with provincial associations or local community colleges for provincially accredited training programs which are often developed jointly by associations, government and colleges. The following associations are examples of those that provide provincial training opportunities: • Provincial Real Estate Association • Professional Driver Trainer Certificate • Driving Instructor Training Course • Certified Trucking Manager • Institute of Housing Management • Administrative Municipal Clerks and treasurers • Management Development Program • Society of Management Accountants. chapter 6 Education and Training Options The Payoff The Canadian Tourism Research Institute surveyed businesses committed to training: • 76 percent reported a noticeable reduction in staff turnover; • 95 percent reported better staff morale; and • 96 percent saw improvements in service. 165 Adult Training Programs “Enterprises and workplaces increasingly recognize training as critical to improving Canada's economic performance. Training plays a vital role in increasing productivity and enhancing employment and income security” (Canadian Labour Market and Productivity Centre, 1993, p. 7). Case Study: Researching the Market Pays Off Khassi, in her mid-forties, had been in Canada for one year. She had completed college level training and had several years experience in accounting in her own country. Khassi approached her local CEC office requesting a training program which would give her computerized accounting skills. She didn’t feel she was very marketable without additional training. The UI counsellor asked Khassi, who was on UI, to research potential employers to see which courses they recommended and to investigate training providers as well. During her investigation, she found an employer who was interested in hiring her. He would be willing to provide her with some of the training she needed and the rest she could get at night school. The job Khassi got was well above minimum wage and in a company large enough that there was ample opportunity for career development. Employees and individuals entering the labour force can expect to be involved in training over the course of their employment to develop their capabilities or skills. Private sector organizations find that ongoing staff development is necessary to keep up with the rapid economic changes a company must go through to compete. The National Training Survey 1991 (Canadian Labour Market and Productivity Centre, 1993) found that the proportion of firms providing structured training to their employees ranged from 67 percent of the smallest organizations (two to 19 employees) to 98 percent of the largest companies of over 500. In all, three quarters of private-sector organizations that were surveyed provided training to their employees. The commitment of management in the public and private sectors to human resource management through training is discussed in the next textbox. Traditionally, young people are trained in educational institutions before they enter the work force, and once they are working, on-the-job training is used to upgrade skills. Some joint business-union sponsored training classes have shown the value in formal training for workers who are upgrading their skills. To ensure the best possible training for future labour market needs, educational institutions are going to have to work with industries to provide skills upgrading programs for the continually growing market of customers needing this service. 166 Making Career Sense of Labour Market information Profile Human Resource Management: Focus on Training A trend to continuous lifelong education for the worker has developed hand in hand with the need to adapt to the rapidly changing technology and the demands of the global competition that are now necessary for business success. To be successful, the management of organizations and industries is committing in the most serious way — with money — to improve human resources. They have recognized the need to: • properly educate a potential worker with up-to-date knowledge; • retrain workers to keep up-to-date; • train the trainer in new technology; • retrain managers to counsel employees in career development; and • re-educate the worker to plan for more mobility and less stability. In recent years, public policy in Canada has been oriented more and more toward the devolution of responsibility for training and human resource decisions to industry and other key stakeholders who are closest to the dynamics of the labour market. With this change, there has been a shift from a historical focus on the problem of labour supply, to a more encompassing view of human resource management and skills training as an investment in the long-term competitiveness of the industry. The quote is from the introduction of the national human resource study of the horticulture industry Organization for the Future (National Steering Committee for the Human Resource Study of the Canadian Horticultural Industry, 1992). It is relevant in all industries, and similar statements can be seen in all the national human resource sector studies. Each industry is stepping forward to claim input into the education and training of the future workers in its respective field to support its human resource needs. Most of the sectors — automotive, printing, broadcasting, horticulture, software, tourism, are a few — have recommended national standards for certification and the establishment of standardized performance levels. Evidence of labour and business co-operation in human resource planning is the establishment of national and provincial labour force development boards and sectoral skills councils which will advise and make recommendations and assessments regarding training. (Please see Appendix A for a description of labour boards and Chapter 5 for a description of sector councils). Chapter 6 Education and Training Options 167 Career Management in the Public Service, a document prepared by the Human Resources Development Council states: “employees must accept personal responsibility for their own career decisions and manage their careers in partnership with the managers in their organization” (Working Group on career Management in the Public Service, 1992). It then provides a framework for public service departments to implement career management practices. Transport Canada and several colleges across Canada also have training programs for new careers for employees. The goal is to improve the competence of the employees which will in turn enhance the performance of the corporation. It will also support a stronger economy by creating a healthier labour force. When layoffs or cutbacks are necessary, the displaced worker has desirable skills to take into the labour marketplace. Managers are learning to guide employees through individual career plans and are using methods that include exploring career paths, investigating demand forecasts, setting up job shadowing and job rotation experiences, facilitating relocations and helping to plan for appropriate training and education. Ellen's Experience: Retraining and Co-operative Career Management A federal government commission had to lay off several clerical employees. The employees were sent to human resources to develop an individualized plan to help them make the transition either to a new position or to a new employer. One of the employees, Ellen, saw this as an exciting opportunity to develop some different skills based on her interests. The human resource officer arranged for aptitude and interest testing and suggested Ellen gather information about courses that might use her talents and interests. At the local community college, the counsellor questioned Ellen and they explored occupational possibilities. A strong interest in science and gardening led them to look at horticulture which was offered as a two-year, fulltime program or as an apprenticeship. To enrol as an apprentice, Ellen had to have an employer willing to hire her. She returned with her information to the human resource officer who told her that the nursery department of the commission was growing and would need more qualified workers. They would take her on as an apprentice. This story illustrates how co-operation and concern for employee development can benefit an organization, as well as the employee. 168 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Forms of Training Employers and employees working together to plan a training program to enhance the performance of the company and its workers have many forms of training to choose from: • accredited institutions; • apprenticeships; • continuing education programs; • seminars and workshops; • on-the-job training; • classroom training outside of work hours or during work hours; • classroom on the premises or off the premises; and • train-the-trainer. Types of Training Activity Most training programs fit into one of the following general types of training activity: • technical skills training; • organizational skills training; and • basic skills training. The National Training Survey 1991 (Canadian Labour Market and Productivity Centre, 1993) lists 10 categories of specific types of training offered by the companies surveyed. Number one was offered by the greatest percentage of companies. The rest follow in order of percentage of companies offering the courses to their employees. These give the student of the labour market an idea of the skills employers are looking for in employees and can help the student choose an educational program and provide some guidance concerning what is important to focus on in a job interview. Popular Specific Types of Training Provided by Employers 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. orientation computers health and safety managerial sales and marketing 6. apprenticeship 7. professional 8. environmental 9. non-office equipment 10.literacy Many companies that are trying to shape their company culture to Total Quality Management offer in-house courses including: quality awareness, team building, customer awareness, process management, quality measurement and statistics. Human Resource Programs There are various human resource development programs for labour market skills offered through Social Assistance, UI, Community Futures, Transitions and many Chapter 6 Education and Training Options 169 community organizations. They target people with disabilities, seniors, displaced workers, single parents, youth on welfare and new immigrants. The programs must be investigated thoroughly because they change quickly, and eligibility is often very specific. Training and educational programs are abundant if one knows where to look. Federal, provincial and municipal monies are routed into community training committees, local labour boards, employer training programs, and associations and professional organizations offering upgrading or qualifying courses. The YM/YWCA provides courses which might include, depending on the locale and needs of the community: computer training, workplace literacy, small business management, life skills coach training and the multicultural workplace. When searching for the appropriate training vehicle for a client or student, practitioners might want to remember that employment training for specialized populations is often available from such organizations as The John Howard Society or the March of Dimes. To give an example, suppose a counsellor were to investigate The John Howard Society. What he or she would discover is a national organization which has expanded services to support the prevention component in the broad criminal justice mandate. Many branches are now offering employment programs to youth, women and men who do not have a record as an offender. Most communities have some programs for older worker adjustment. Contacting the local CEC office or a seniors’ employment bureau (some communities have them) may give information on programs or monetary support for retraining older workers. If a client is in need of literacy training, the local school boards, libraries, Salvation Army or YM/YWCA might offer such training. Those on unemployment insurance may receive training through the UI office or the CEC. Sometimes, the practitioner finds a client has been sent to investigate the institutional courses available. The UI office may choose to support the client during the course if there is a good possibility of employment after completion. Usually the length of the training is limited to 52 weeks. Training Sponsored by HRDC Human Resources Development Canada will typically have programs for employee and employer development. These programs are revised periodically in response to the changing needs of the Canadian economy. Practitioners who are interested in finding out about programs available for their clients can contact their local Canada Employment Centre (CEC) office. 170 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information B. WHERE TO FIND MORE Some Sources to Go to for Information on Education and Training Opportunities ACCESS! Task Force on Access to Professions and Trades in Ontario. Published by the Ontario Ministry of Citizenship, 1989. Order from Publications Ontario, 5th Floor, 880 Bay St., Toronto, Ontario M7A 1N8. Issues facing trades and professions, with emphasis on foreign-trained individuals. Developing prior learning assessment — includes federal language programs, list of other provinces' programs. Retraining issues includes other models e.g., Manitoba’s, Sweden’s and Great Britain’s. List of professional summaries describing educational requirements in Ontario, other provinces and elsewhere, experience requirements, licensure testing, language training and retraining. Computerized Directory (Ontario). Bilingual program designed to give people easy access to information on skilled occupations and apprenticeship programs. Available to anyone at provincial Apprenticeship and Client Services offices, some public libraries, community counselling groups and community colleges, community industrial training committees, Contact North and through guidance counsellors in secondary schools. To locate the directory nearest you, call the Training Hotline:1800-387-5656. Ellis Chart, Comparative Chart of Apprenticeship Training Programmes, Human Resources Development Canada, Employment Services. Order from Occupational and Career Information Branch (address below). Catalogue number MP43-217/1990. National Guide to College and University Programs. Human Resources Development Canada. Free. Order from Career Information Directorate, Occupational and Career Information Branch, HRDC, Hull, Quebec K1A 0J9. Information on college and university programs including information on co­ operative, continuing and distance education across Canada. Occupational Standards and Certification. Overview: Trends and Issues. Price Waterhouse for Human Resources Development Canada. Order from: HRDC Policy and Program Analysis, Labour Market Policy Analysis, 140 Promenade du Portage, Place du Portage, Phase IV, 8th Floor, Hull, Quebec K1A 0J9. Orientation to Trades and Technology: a Curriculum Guide and Resource Book with Special Emphasis on the Needs of Women. British Columbia, Ministry of Advanced Education, Training and Technology, 1990. Order from Provincial Curriculum Publications Marketing Dept., Open Learning Agency, P.O. Box 94000, Richmond, British Columbia V6Y 2A2. Order no. CO0067. chapter 6 Education and Training Options 171 Course units - Life Skills, Work-related Skills, Career Development, with suggested teaching strategies and media resource suggestions. Professional Schools Factsheets. Career Planning and Placement, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario K7L 3N6. Tel: (613) 545-2992; Fax: (613) 545-3856. A comprehensive guide to entrance requirements for Canada’s professional programs, updated yearly. What to Study. Overview of all post-secondary education, Saskatchewan Education, Training, and Employment. Order from Saskatchewan Education, Training, and Employment, 5th floor, 2220 College Ave., Regina, Saskatchewan S4P 3V7. Tel: (306) 787-7376; Fax (306) 787-0074. Educational Organizations Association of Canadian Community Colleges. 1223 Michael St. N., Suite 200, Ottawa, Ontario K1J 7T2. Tel: (613) 746-2853; Fax: (613) 746-6721. National representative organization which acts as an advocate for colleges and institutes; initiates and supports professional development opportunities, research endeavours and linkages with the private sector, industry, labour, and government; and arranges partnerships to share information and resources around the world. Publishes papers such as Our Futures in Technology and a newsletter called ACCC Community covering the latest information on topics such as programming, partnerships, people, resources and conferences. Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada. 350 Albert Street, Ottawa, Ontario K1P 1B1. Tel: (613) 563-1236; Fax: (613) 563-9745. Canadian Association for Co-operative Education. 55 Eglmton Avenue East, Suite 805, Toronto, Ontario M4P 1G8. Tel: (416) 483-3311; Fax: (416) 483-3365. Canadian Bureau for International Education. 220 Laurier Avenue West, Suite 1100, Ottawa, Ontario K1P 5Z9. Tel: (613) 237-4820; Fax: (613) 237-1160. Canadian Education Association. 252 Bloor Street West, Suite 8-200, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1V5. Tel: (416) 924-7721; Fax: (416) 924-3188. National Association of Career Colleges. 1-301 Fairview Dr., P.O. Box 340, Brantford, Ontario N3T 5N3. Tel: (519) 753-8689; Fax: (519) 753-4772. Produced Canadian publication for high school or younger students Careers for the 90s: Getting Skilled - Getting Ahead: Your Guide to Success. Jobs available to skilled and unskilled workers and corresponding opportunities for advancement. Questions on how to choose a career, information on how to choose a private college, short career profiles, provincial/territorial list of 172 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information approved and recommended private colleges, courses offered, list of relevant associations and government departments. Check with your provincial advanced or continuing education ministry for more province-specific information sources. See Appendix G. Chapter 6 Education and Training Options 173 174 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Chapter 7 SUMMARY OF KEY THEMES This chapter pulls together the essential labour market themes that have been woven throughout the previous chapters and presents them in one place, in an easy-to-use format. Following each theme is a brief explanation for practitioners. The shaded textboxes contain tips for practitioners to pass on to their clients. A. EMERGING THEMES IN THE NEW LABOUR MARKET Theme 1: All the Components Making Up the Labour Market Serve to Affect One Bottom Line for the Client—Supply and Demand A good, solid knowledge of all the factors influencing the labour market is an asset to any member of the labour force. However, basic information on supply and demand is probably the bottom line affecting the client or student’s position in the labour market. It is helpful to know whether the market is already or soon to be flooded with qualified people in a selected occupation or whether there is a present or upcoming shortage of particular workers. Tips/Research Suggestions Use information sources to gather supply and demand information before making decisions. These sources could include: • the education or training institution being considered; • the regional economist publications; • unions and associations; • CEC counsellors; • local service groups who are willing to share information on the occupations of their members; and • Chamber of Commerce. Theme 2: Sources of Information Are Everywhere. Only a Lack of Creative Investigation Limits the Number of Sources There is an abundance of reports and books, associations, community and government offices, support groups, steering committees and so on, that provide valuable information helpful to a client or student who is making career choices. An often overlooked resource is an annual report. It can list companies, government agencies and contact people with labour market information useful to a practitioner Chapter 7 Summary of Key Themes 175 and client or student, and often includes reports on new trends that are influencing an industry or the people who work in it. Comments may also be made regarding the relevance of training being provided in a certain field. Some national and provincial sources of information and the type of information they provide appear in Appendix A. Tips/Research Suggestions Ask, ask, ask! Don’t be afraid to ask anyone for help or suggestions. Ask your neighbours, former teachers, association receptionists, relatives and anyone you meet on the job, e.g., the TV repairer or computer technician who installs your printer. Always ask the person who gives you some information for another name for you to contact. Theme 3: Using Labour Market Information in Career Planning Is a Process that Has to Be Learned and Practised Clients or students need to be taught what questions will give them useful labour market information. They need to practise until the questions come automatically and they need to learn where to get the answers to those questions. In Chapter 5 some simple questions for those wanting to gather labour market information were suggested. • Does the present situation represent the future situation? • What predictions are reliable? • Where can I find further information to support or refute these predictions? • Is a particular article biased to make an argument for a lobby group? • How will consumer behaviour affect opportunities? • What public policies will impinge on this career? • How many workers are already in this field? • How many new workers will be needed in the future? • How will technology change the industry? • What is the next most likely position to move into? 176 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information • Is this occupation mobile across the country? • From which training programs do employers prefer to hire? Some of the above questions were taken from Improved Career Decision Making in a Changing World (Ettinger, 1991) and Occupational Outlook (Alfred, 1992). Tips/Research Suggestions Read the business section of the newspaper. Practise asking labour market questions about what you read. Study the want ads and ask yourself what you can learn from the types and numbers of job descriptions, the salaries, etc. Check your interpretations with your friends or people in the business. Theme 4: Technology Has an Impact on Virtually Every Occupation and on the Training and Education that any Member of the Labour Force Will Have This theme encompasses two areas of labour. First, technology affects training and education of workers in general. There is a constant call for more highly skilled employees in industry. Human resource reports beg for workers who are better trained in maths, science and technology in order to keep up with the new developments in a field. Tips/Research Suggestions Check first with employers or associations and unions for what high-tech skills are in demand and what advanced equipment is being used, and then make sure that the training program or institution you choose is up-to-date enough to give you these skills and knowledge. Second, technology will impose on managers as well as other workers, to broaden their knowledge base so they can deal with new developments, new problems, a new breed of clients and employees with more techno-knowledge. The need for new management skills is mentioned throughout the book, crossing all sectors. In Chapter 2 a summary of necessary generic supervisory skills is listed for the new, globally competitive business. Chapter 7 Summary of Key Themes 177 Tips/Research Suggestions Take note of what to train in, if you want to be an effective supervisor in the new economy. No matter what your technical expertise, study management skills. No matter what your management expertise, study technological developments. Skills Required in the Future Knowledge Required • Manage technological change • Relate to company values • Be creative •Take calculated risks • Be a conceptual thinker • Manage stress • Understanding people • General business knowledge • Labour and government regulations • Understanding the total organization • General knowledge about computers • Technical knowledge SOURCE: Compete to Win Research Report, Gilmore & Associates 1990. Theme 5: Computer Sills Have Become Generic, Transferable Skills, in Demand in Every Occupation Over and over again the same trend was evident — the demand for computer skills in every occupation, from manufacturing tool-and-die maker to environmental scientist, from accountant to dance choreographer, from teacher to retail sales manager. Even artists need knowledge of computers, as graduates in graphic design and interior design have discovered. Tips/Research Suggestions Make sure you have computer skills. Check the program of study to see if it includes computer training. If not, take extra training at night or during school breaks or after you finish the program. Theme 6: Multi-skilling Is More and More Required in the New Economy Repeated in the industry human resource studies was the increased value that specific skills training in two or more areas provides, e.g., engineers with finance or accounting skills, scientists with marketing skills, tool-and-die makers with welding skills, electronics technologists with team leadership skills, advertising executives 178 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information with knowledge of computing animation, marketing specialists with international law knowledge, administrative assistants with desktop publishing skills. Tips/Research Suggestions As you investigate occupations, ask what extra skill training is of added value to the new entrant in the field. Ask what kind of jobs are being phased out or what layoffs occurred. Find out what skills are involved which have to be picked up by the remaining workers and train yourself in these areas. Theme 7: The Components of the Labour Market Are Interwoven to Such a Degree That Changes in Structure Relate to Several LM Components at Once. Because the labour market components are so intertwined discussion of any one component often involves discussion of several other components. Therefore, a structural change can be affected by several LM factors. A good example is the new flatter organizational structure which is related to global marketing, the information era, retraining and tightening economics. As each of these areas is discussed, the relationship to the new structure becomes evident. In Chapter 2, there is a summary of what the new entrant to the labour market can expect in the new organization, and Chapter 4 highlights the skills needed to succeed. • Problem solving for customer satisfaction is something you will have to do. • Make more decisions on the job. • Train yourself to work in a team. • Use the employment interview to talk about your knowledge of customer service. • Learn leadership and presentation skills. • Expect to be continually training on-the-job. • Expect to gain a raise in pay for more skills or knowledge acquired but not to move up the organizational ladder. The room at the top is diminishing, and organizations are spreading laterally, yet still looking for ways to motivate employees. Chapter 7 Summary of Key Themes 179 Tips/Research Suggestions Expect that any information you receive will change. Check several sources of information and ask about different labour market influences to get a whole picture. Change in any component may cause a chain reaction that will influence your original source of information. Theme 8: In Newspapers, Journals, Books, Reports, Studies and Brochures Aimed At Youth, Employers, Employees, Practitioners, Students and Teachers, the Same Message Reoccurs: the Growth Area Will Be in Services; Expect Less Job Security; And Many People Will Be Self-employed At the same time as we are told that many of us can expect to work in the service area and be self-employed, many areas are mentioned as opportunities for employment: services to the aging baby boomers, including financial planning, recreation and physical therapy; environment; systems analysis and programming; exporting and international marketing; and telecommunications. Tips/Research Suggestions Think creatively about your options and ways of linking your expertise with growth areas of the economy. For example, consider preparing yourself with expertise in a field that includes small business management. If science is not your area, think about a service you might offer to those involved in the field. If international marketing is out of your range, figure out a service you can offer those involved in that field. If every business needs the benefit of programmers and analysts, and it is not in your realm, how could you fit into that market e.g., a matching service, providing technical people for contract positions with firms? Conclusion Many people love the excitement of a marketplace. The challenge of getting the best value for what they have to offer is thrilling. A little bit of extra knowledge about a product or service sometimes secures an exceptional deal. Having had a brief tour of the labour market, practitioners can see what knowledge a client or student would need to be an effective bargaining agent in a constantly shifting arena. The vendors change their offerings and prices in a very irregular, hard-to-predict fashion, due to economic, social and technological developments that are constantly interjected into the market. New stalls spring up and old ones disappear suddenly. Wandering among the stalls will be a mix of naive and expert barterers. 180 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Practitioners have the opportunity to play an important part in preparing people to move about and deal in the labour market. Together, they can explore and define informational needs, gather information, organize what they collect, analyze and evaluate the information at hand and decide which action plan would best suit the goal. The new Canadian economy calls for efficient use of the information that is readily available to the population. Learning to locate and use easily accessible data enables clients and students to effectively enter the labour force in a manner that suits their abilities and the changing needs of the labour market. Chapter 7 Summary of Key Themes 181 B. WHERE TO FIND MORE Starting a Search - Some Sources of General Information Canadian Environmental Careers Resource Manual. Noel Desautels, 1992. Environmental Careers Organization, 91 Simpson Avenue, Toronto, Ontario M4K 1A1. Tel: (416) 778-8887; Fax: (416) 466-8807. Interviews with environmental career professionals. Bibliography, resources, strategies for environmental careers. Canadian Key Business Directory. Dunn & Bradstreet Canada. Annual. Community Futures. Programs in rural and remote communities facing serious labour market difficulties. Include a Community Futures Committee which creates and implements plans for local employment development, a Business Development Centre for technical advice and assistance and Community Initiatives Fund which contributes to local initiatives critical to the community development plan. Developing a Career Information Centre. Marge Lacey, c/o Canadian Career Information Assocation, P.O. Box 84, Station P, Toronto, Ontario M5S 2S6. Guide and source of information for those building a career centre. Second edition is revamped and includes valuable information on computerizing your centre. Directory of Associations in Canada. Micromedia Limited. Annual. Lists names of all associations in Canada with contact name, address and telephone number. Fraser’s Canadian Trade Directory. Fraser Publication Company, Montreal. Annual. Lists names of manufacturers, products, address and telephone number. Publications, Posters and Audiovisual Material Catalogue from the Information Development & Marketing Branch of Alberta Advanced Education and Career Development. Order from Desk Learning Resources Distribution Centre, Alberta Education, 12360-142 Street, Edmonton, Alberta T5L 4X9. Tel: (403) 427-2767; Fax: (403) 422-9750. Catalogue of publications on career development, including The Career Planner, Entrepreneur: A Big Word for a Small Business, Skills are Your Passport and Women in the Workforce. Free to Alberta and N.W.T. residents. The Standard Periodical Directory. Oxbridge Communications, New York. Annual. Lists publication name, publisher’s name, address, telephone number and cost of trade journals. What Can I Do with a Degree In...? Erindale College, University of Toronto, 1992. 3359 Mississauga Road North, Mississauga, Ontario L5L 1C6. Twenty-four subject areas with examples of job titles and employers, skills and knowledge acquired and career planning strategies. 182 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Appendix A LABOUR MARKET RESOURCES ESSENTIAL FOR THE PRACTITIONER The following resources provide practitioners with an overview of some national and provincial organizations and their mandates in relation to labour market information. It can be used as a starting point for an investigation of labour market information for practitioners. A suggestion of the type of information each organization offers is included. Human Resources Development Canada (HRDC) Human Resources Development Canada (HRDC) was created by the government organizational changes announced November 4, 1993. These changes are intended to make government simpler and more closely focussed on broad policy themes. HRDC provides an integrated approach to Canada's national investment in people by bringing programs supporting the income of Canadians together with human resource programs linked to the requirements of the national economy and the labour market. The creation of HRDC is a major step in building the mobile, educated and skilled work force needed to increase Canada’s productivity and international competitiveness, and the prosperity of its citizens. In co-operation with other government departments, provincial and territorial governments and the private sector, HRDC supports and provides education, training, employability, income assistance and social programs that benefit children, youth, seniors, workers, employers, unions and communities. HRDC’s programs and services are delivered through a network of regional and local offices. Canada Employment Centres, Client Service Centres and district offices are located in hundreds of communities across Canada. Program and service activities are co-ordinated and supported by a regional office in each province, headed by Regional Executive Directors/Directors General and by National Headquarters Executive Heads. Each regional office has an Economic Services Branch. These units produce data and reports containing labour market information on a regional level. Free publications can be obtained from different HRDC departments such as: the Human Resource Studies described in Chapter 5 or the Annual Equity Report described in Chapter 2. Appendix A Labour Market Resources Essential for the Practitioner 183 Canada Employment Centre (CEC) The CECs have labour market information analysts who collect, analyze and disseminate local labour market information. They offer several programs and services including labour market information. They also deliver employment counselling services and apply relevant HRD training services to the specific needs of their own community. Within CECs are the following manual and automated systems. MANUAL Job Information Centres: At most CECs. Information on employment conditions and on specific job vacancies. “Open-order” display provides complete employer identification data on job orders posted so workers can approach employers directly. Labour Market Annual Report: In CECs across Canada. Local CEC offices provide this information in free publications such as: The Labour Market, Employment Standards which provide employment demand projections for the region or municipality. AUTOMATED National Employment Services System (NESS): This computerized information system is designed to provide faster and more accurate service. Employers’ job requirements received by one CEC may be distributed to other offices. Online Insurance System (OLIS): A computerized system, OLIS provides data on unemployment. CHOICES: This computerized occupation and career decision information system is available in more than 200 CEC offices. Interoptions: Developed by HRDC, this interactive computer interest inventory takes 15 minutes to complete. A bar-chart interest profile and list of occupational suggestions are provided. Commercial version available. Geta Life... Get An Education: This interactive computer software program provides students with career and labour market information in a fun game-style fashion. Canadian Career Information Association (CCIA) P.O. Box 84, Station P, Toronto, Ontario M5S 2S6 CCIA is an organization of professionals who work in the field of career information resources. The purpose is to identify career information resources and promote 184 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information their role in the career development process. Membership is open to educational institutions, libraries, businesses, government and community organizations as well as individuals interested in career-related information for client and professional use. CareerINFOcus: Published three times a year, this newsletter is the official medium of communication for CCIA with occupational descriptions, labour market information and reviews of career-related books. Developing a Career Information Centre: This publication provides valuable information on how to put together a career centre. Professional Schools Fact Sheets: Available from Career Planning and Placement, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario K7L 3N6. Tel: (613) 545-2992; Fax: (613) 545-3856, the fact sheets are a comprehensive guide to entrance requirements for Canada’s professional programs. The “resource sharing” that takes place at each meeting is available to members with each set of minutes for CCIA meetings. It gives an assortment of annotated mini-bibliographies and descriptions of audio-visual material, written by professionals in the career information and counselling field. The name and phone number of the person who suggests the resource is provided. The Canadian Career Information Partnership (CCIP) Occupational and Career Development Division, Human Resources Development Canada, 140 Promenade du Portage, Phase IV, Fifth Floor, Hull, Quebec K1A 0J9. Tel: (819) 953-7449; Fax: (819) 997-0227. CCIP is a partnership of career information specialists from across Canada who are creating new collaboration strategies to get more and better information to people who need it, in a cost-effective manner. Canada Prospects: This free newspaper is published as a service to people either planning a career or concerned about the labour market. Colourful, easy reading with interesting case studies. Provincial versions are also available in a number of provinces. Canadian Labour Market and Productivity Centre (CLMPC) 66 Slater St., 6th floor, Ottawa, Ontario K1P 5H1. Tel: (613) 234-0505; Fax: (613) 234-2482. CLMPC is a joint business-labour body mandated to bring the two parties together to seek agreement on important labour market issues to aid in the development of Appendix A Labour Market Resources Essential for the Practitioner 185 effective labour market policies and practices. Publications are free. “What is the CLMPC?” includes a list and description of publications. Publications include: Quarterly Labour Market and Productivity Review. Working Together: This newsletter gives snapshots of current economic trends. Canadian Business Bulletin: Information and research findings in areas of Canadian competitiveness, productivity developments and labour market performance are provided. National Training Survey 1991: Information is provided by size of organization, by industrial sector, by region, and by occupation and gender. Canadian Labour Force Development Board (CLFDB) 66 Slater St., 23rd Floor, Ottawa, Ontario K1P 5H1. Tel: (613) 230-6264; Fax: (613) 230-7681 Established in 1991, CLFDB is an independent, not-for-profit national organization. Board members are nominated by the organizations that represent the major labour market constituents: business, labour, education/training, community and the four designated groups under the Employment Equity Act—aboriginal peoples, people with disabilities, visible minorities and women. Funded by the Canadian government, the mandate of the CLFDB is to: • serve as an advocate for relevant, high quality, accessible training; • advise the Government of Canada on all aspects of training and related employment and adjustment programs and policies; • make firm recommendations on a number of training issues including occupational standards, methods of reducing barriers to access training, measures to increase the coordination of income support and training, measures to ensure training programs contribute to employment equity and allocation of funds for training. The CLFDB has met with all provinces and territories to encourage formation of provincial and territorial labour force development boards in order to provide broad guidelines for federal and provincial policies and programs. The next project is the creation of local boards to provide guidance and direction to the operation of training programs in their local area. Local boards will be able to take into account the structural and economic influences that affect their own unique, local, labour markets. Free publications includes its report which outlines CLFDB activities. Provincial Labour Force Development Boards Representatives from business, labour, the four designated groups, and educators and trainers work together to create a system for training workers and helping individuals and communities adapt to economic change. Boards co-ordinate a wide 186 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information range of training and adjustment programs and services from several different ministries. Boards are in different stages of development in each province. Ontario Training and Adjustment Board OTAB Project Communications, 9th floor, 595 Bay Street, A Tower, Box 153, Toronto, Ontario M5G 2C2. Tel: (416) 314-4741; Fax: (416) 314-4783. New Brunswick Labour Force Development Board 191 Prospect St. 2nd Floor, P.O. Box 216, Stn. A, Fredericton, New Brunswick E3B 4Y9. Tel: (506) 457-1277. B.C. Labour Force Development Board 221-560 Johnson Street, Victoria, British Columbia V8V 1X4. Tel: (604) 356-5360; Fax: (604) 356-9444; Toll-free: 1-800-663-7867. (Enquiry B.C.) Saskatchewan Labour Force Development Board 222 13th Avenue, Suite 202, Regina, Saskatchewan S4P 3M7. Tel: (306) 352-5999; Fax: (306) 757-7880. Nova Scotia Labour Force Development Board 99 Wyse Road, Suite 350, Dartmouth, Nova Scotia B3$ 1L9. Tel: (902) 464-4997; Fax: (902) 463-0159. Conference Board of Canada 255 Smyth Rd., Ottawa, Ontario K1H 8M7. Tel: (613) 526-3280; Fax: (613) 5264857. The Conference Board of Canada is a leading private, applied research institution dedicated to enhancing the performance of Canadian organizations within the global economy. It is an independent, not-for-profit organization, providing: • economic forecasting and analysis; • organizational effectiveness research; • business sectors research; • public policy analysis; and • international business research. The Human Resource Development Centre is a separately funded division of the Conference Board of Canada. Through research, it strives to improve the strategic and competitive position of member organizations by facilitating the adoption of effective management and leadership practices. Their various research reports can point out trends in the business world, both domestically and internationally. A recent publication of use to those looking for labour market information is Training and Development 1991, Expenditures and Policies. Appendix A Labour Market Resources Essential for the Practitioner 187 188 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Appendix B GLOSSARY For a more detailed definition of labour market terms and issues, see Understanding the Labour Market published by the Information Development and Marketing Branch of Alberta Advanced Education and Career Development (ISBN 07732-06167). Accreditation - process by which agency or association grants public recognition to a training institution, program of study or service which meets certain pre-set standards. Alternative Work Arrangements - recognizing that some people are interested in more flexible work arrangements and shorter hours, some employers have either initiated or negotiated alternative work-time arrangements with employees. These include job sharing, flex-time and compressed work weeks. They offer the possibility of moving from the model of the flexible worker to the model of the flexible workplace, one in which the needs of the organization and the needs of employees are recognized and reconciled. In a flexible workplace, the hours of work can be varied to meet the preferences of workers consistent with employer needs, but employees can also work predictable hours and receive a predictable income. Attrition - jobs that are vacated due to retirement or death of the workers. Business Cycle - fluctuations in economic activity characterized by periods of economic boom and downturn. Career - is a lifestyle concept that involves a sequence of work or leisure activities in which one engages throughout a lifetime. Careers are unique to each person and are dynamic, unfolding throughout life. They include not only occupations, but prevocational and post vocational concerns as well as how persons integrate their work life roles (Herr and Cramer, 1984). The sequence of occupations, jobs, and positions engaged in or occupied throughout the lifetime of a person (Super and Bohn, 1970 from Srebalus, Marinelli and Messing, 1982, p. 97). Certification - issuance of a formal document attesting to a set of skills, knowledge and abilities possessed by the holder often linked to completion of education/training requirements. Demand - an occupation is considered to be in demand when the ratio of Unemployment Insurance claimants to total vacancies is 4:1 or less than five vacancies are recorded in the month. Appendix B Glossary 189 Demography - the study of population patterns which provides information such as statistics on birth, death and disease in a community. Discouraged Workers - people who are unemployed and have given up looking for work. Econometric Model - tools for measurement used in forecasting, which extrapolate from statistics. Employment Growth - the creation of new jobs. Employment Requirement - the combination of the two figures, employment growth and attrition, gives the employment requirement, i.e., the need the economy has for new workers. Employment/Population Ratio - percentage of the working-age population which is employed. Fifteen Plus Population - everyone over the age of 15. Forecast - extrapolates from present information very specifically with reference to a short time frame. It predicts what may occur but does not change or impact on social changes. Household Sector - people who stay home and do not seek paid employment inside or outside the home. Discouraged workers become part of the household sector. Interoccupational Mobility - ability of workers to move from one job to another. Job - a paid position requiring a group of specific attributes enabling a person to perform a configuration of tasks in an organization. Labour Force Survey - a survey conducted monthly across Canada by Statistics Canada of approximately 48,800 households in 10 provinces representing 100,000 respondents. Labour Force - that part of the working-age population participating in work or actively job searching. Retired people, students, people not actively seeking work or unavailable for work for other reasons are not part of the labour force. Labour Market - arena where those who are in need of labour and those who can supply the labour come together. 190 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Labour Market Information - information which relates to the labour market such as data on employment, wages, standards and qualifications, job openings, working conditions. Licensure - provides, to those holding a licence, the exclusive right to practise certain legally defined functions. Occupation - a group of similar jobs found in different industries or organizations (Herr and Cramer, 1984). Occupational Standards - benchmarks against which occupations and/or the people in those occupations are measured. Participation Rate - the number of people in the labour force divided by the total working-age population gives a percentage known as the participation rate. Placement Centres - centres which provide the service of matching individuals with job openings. Profession - an occupation that requires special skills and advanced training. Protected Industries - industries (such as pulp and paper) that are protected from competition. The government places a tax or tariff on imports into the country in that industry's product. Reference Week - the one week of the month (containing the 15th day) in which the Statistics Canada Labour Force Survey is done. Replacement Level - the level when births equal deaths in the population. Standardization - act of increasing the uniformity of a product or service and decreasing the extent of variation. Skill - an attribute a worker has to complete a work task. Trend - a long-term change in social direction, broad in scope and identified by many sources. There is a traceable history. A trend changes known conditions. Unemployment Cyclical - workers gain and lose jobs according to the boom and bust cycles of the economy. For example, the oil workers have lots of work when the price of oil is up; when prices fall, workers are out of work. Frictional - usually for a short duration, people who are between jobs by choice because the last job was unfulfilling, didn't pay enough, they wanted to change jobs or for other reasons. Appendix B Glossary 191 Seasonal - people not working due to regular fluctuations in demand, e.g.,crop harvesters are only in demand for part of the year, and demand for construction work diminishes greatly in winter climates. Structural - job vacancies that require different skills than the workers have, either due to a lack of training or to geography. For example, a hockey player who can no longer play the game and has no skills to match employer needs or, the need for tool-and-die makers is great in Calgary but the unemployed tool-and-die makers are in Windsor. Working-Age Population - section of the population over 15 who are not living on Indian reserves, as inmates of institutions or as full-time members of the armed forces. Definitions adapted from: Herr and Cramer. (1988) Career Guidance and Counselling Through the Life Span. Systematic Approaches. Improved Career Decision Making in a Changing World. (1991 ) ed. By J. Ettinger. Human Resources Development Canada. (1990) LMI Handbook: a guide to local labour market information analysis (2nd Edition). Human Resources Development Canada. Occupational Standards and Certification. Alberta Advanced Education and Career Development. (1993) Understanding the Labour Market. 192 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Appendix C ELECTRONIC INFORMATION Electronic information provides quick access to data. Many programs exist and even more are being developed. Electronic information access includes: Type 1: Program or information is on a computer in a specified office location and user must go to it. There is help available from the staff. Type 2: Program is on a diskette for distribution to the public. The diskette is used on a home or office computer. Type 3: Program is part of an electronic network that you can log onto with your computer. This is also called interfacing. It is like phoning another computer and getting information from it. Type 4: Program is used by staff who may be able to share some of the information that they have on their program. Some examples of these electronic types are given below. Computerized Directory of Apprenticeable Trades in Ontario (Type 1): This bilingual program is designed to give people easy access to information on skilled occupations and apprenticeship programs. Available to anyone at ministry apprenticeship and client services offices, some public libraries, community counselling groups and community colleges, community industrial training committees, guidance counsellors and Contact North. To locate the directory nearest you, call the Training Hotline: 1-800-387-5656. EDINFO (Types 2 and 3): This data base lists all post-secondary courses in Alberta, and all correspondence courses in Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba. Available as software diskette or user interface. For information call (403) 422-1794. ENTER (Type 4): This Northwest Territories data base provides labour force supply information. Participants register voluntarily. Current employment status, work needs or wants, experience and education levels, training needs or wants are entered. It also keeps track of placement in courses, Training-on-the-Job contracts, apprenticeship placements and career action plans. For information call (403) 920-6986. Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC) (Types 3 and 4): It provides access to the various library collections. Information is available in both languages on request. Appendix C Electronic Information 193 There are specific technical requirements to log on from your own computer: terminal must reach VT 100 or must have a WYSE emulating T160E or WYSE emulating Televideo925. Tel: (819) 994-2603. Online dial-in access (819) 9539358. Library, Human Resources Development Canada, Place du Portage, Phase IV, Hull, Quebec K1A0J9. National Employment Services System (Type 4): This computerized information system is designed to keep track of employers' job requirements. Requests received by one CEC may be quickly distributed to other offices, providing access to job openings across a city or region. Ask the local CEC office for information or a demonstration. The National Occupational System (The Electronic NOC): An electronic version of the NOC will be available in the Spring of 1996. A broad spectrum of user groups, including representatives from counselling, labour market analysis, rehabilitation, education, employment equity, youth services and adult education services, were consulted on the development of this application. The system consists of all the information currently in the print version of the NOC, and is accessible through six distinct searching methods: • by skill type • by skill level • by NOC matrix • by occupational title • by NOC code • by keyword (or groups of keywords). A compare function allows users to view user-defined NOC data elements side by side. The application includes an extensive library of on-line, context sensitive help screens that allows users to access help at any time. The application is Windows-based and operates on individual DOS-based personal computers. It requires a minimum of an 80-386 processor and approximately 12 MB of hard disk space per language (English and French). The application will likely be installable on local area networks. To order, contact: Canada Communications Group, Publishing Department, Ottawa, Ontario K1A OSO. Tel: (819) 956-4802; Fax: (819) 994-1498. University Student Information System (USIS) (Type 4): The system obtains graduation information from the administrative records of Canadian degree-granting institutions. Ready-made tabulations are available to members of the public in electronic and printed format. For information call Post-Secondary Education Section of The Education, Culture and Tourism Division of Statistics Canada at (613) 951-8285. 194 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Local Sources (Type 2): There may be local sources of computerized data available in your area. Ask around and you may find something like Skill Source Training Database for Hamilton-Wentworth (software). Updated quarterly. Order from Sharon Treacher at (416) 529-8111, ext. 291. Appendix C Electronic Information 195 196 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Appendix D THE 26 MAJOR GROUPS OF THE NOC Major Group Classification 00 Senior Management Occupations 01/09 Middle Management and Other Management Occupations 11 Professional Occupations in Business and Finance 12 Skilled Administrative and Business Occupations 14 Clerical Occupations, General Office Skills 21 Professional Occupations in Natural and Applied Sciences 22 Technical Occupations Related to Natural and Applied Sciences 31 Professional Occupations in Health 32 Technical Skilled Occupations in Health 34 Assisting Occupations in Support of Health Services 41 Professional Occupations in Social Science, Education, Government Services and Religion 42 Paraprofessional Occupations in Law, Social Services, Education and Religion 51 Professional Occupations in Art and Culture 52 Technical and Skilled Occupations in Art, Culture Recreation and Sport 62 Skilled Sales and Service Occupations 64 Intermediate Sales and Service Occupations Appendix D The 26 Major Groups of NOC 197 66 Elemental Sales and Service Occupations 72/73 Trades and Skilled Transport and Equipment Operators 74 Intermediate Occupations in Transport, Equipment Operation, Installation and Maintenance 76 Trades Helpers, Construction Labourers and Related Occupations 82 Skilled Occupations in Primary Industry 84 Intermediate Occupations in Primary Industry 86 Labourers in Primary Industry 92 Processing, Manufacturing and Utilities Supervisors and Skilled Operators 94/95 Processing and Manufacturing Machine Operators and Assemblers 96 Labourers in Processing, Manufacturing and Utilities 198 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Appendix E THE STANDARD INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATION (SIC) MAJOR GROUPS CLASSIFICATION STRUCTURE Division A - Agricultural and Related Services Industries Major Group 01 - Agricultural Industries Major Group 02 - Service Industries Incidental to Agriculture Division B - Fish and Trapping Industries Major Group 03 - Fishing and Trapping Industries Division C - Logging and Forestry Industries Major Group 04 - Logging Industry Major Group 05 - Forestry Services Industry Division D - Mining (Including Milling), Quarrying and Oil Well Industries Major Group 06 - Mining Industries Major Group 07 - Crude Petroleum and Natural Gas Industries Major Group 08 - Quarry and Sand Pit Industries Major Group 09 - Service Industries Incidental to Mineral Extraction Division E - Manufacturing Industries Major Group 10 - Food Industries Major Group 11 - Beverage Industries Major Group 12 - Tobacco Products Industries Major Group 15 - Rubber Products Industries Major Group 16 - Plastic Products Industries Major Group 17 - Leather and Allied Products Industries Major Group 18 - Primary Textile Industries Major Group 19 - Textile Products Industries Major Group 24 - Clothing Industries Major Group 25 - Wood Industries Major Group 26 - Furniture and Fixture Industries Major Group 27 - Paper and Allied Products Industries Major Group 28 - Printing, Publishing and Allied Industries Major Group 29 - Primary Metal Industries Major Group 30 - Fabricated Metal Products Industries (Except Machinery and Transportation Equipment Industries) Appendix E The Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Major Groups 199 Major Group 31 - Machinery Industries (Except Electrical Machinery) Major Group 32 - Transportation Equipment Industries Major Group 33 - Electrical and Electronic Products Industries Major Group 35 - Non-Metallic Mineral Products Industries Major Group 36 - Refined Petroleum and Coal Products Industries Major Group 37 - Chemical and Chemical Products Industries Major Group 38 - Other Manufacturing Industries Division F - Construction Industries Major Group 40 - Building, Developing and General Contracting Industries Major Group 41 - Industrial and Heavy (Engineering) Construction Industries Major Group 42 - Trade Contracting Industries Major Group 44 - Service to Industries Incidental to Construction Division G - Transportation and Storage Industries Major Group 45 - Transportation Industries Major Group 46 - Pipeline Transport Industries Major Group 47 - Storage and Warehousing Industries Division H - Communications and Other Utility Industries Major Group 48 - Communication Industries Major Group 49 - Other Utility Industries Division I - Wholesale Trade Industries Major Group 50 - Farm Products Industries, Wholesale Major Group 51 - Petroleum Products Industries, Wholesale Major Group 52 - Food, Beverage, Drug and Tobacco Industries, Wholesale Major Group 53 - Apparel and Dry Goods Industries, Wholesale Major Group 54 - Household Goods Industries, Wholesale Major Group 55 - Motor Vehicle, Parts and Accessories Industries, Wholesale Major Group 56 - Metals, Hardware, Plumbing, Heating and Building Materials Industries, Wholesale Major Group 57 - Machinery, Equipment and Supplies Industries, Wholesale Major Group 59 - Other Products Industries, Wholesale Division J - Retail Trade Industries Major Group 60 - Food, Beverage and Drug Industries, Retail Major Group 61 - Shoe, Apparel, Fabric and Yarn Industries, Retail Major Group 62 - Household Furniture, Appliances and Furnishings Industries, Retail Major Group 63 - Automotive, Vehicles, Parts and Accessories Industries, Sales and Service Major Group 64 - General Retail Merchandising Industries Major Group 65 - Other Retail Store Industries Major Group 69 - Non-Store Retail Industries 200 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Division K - Finance and Insurance Industries Major Group 70 - Deposit Accepting Intermediary Industries Major Group 71 - Consumer and Business Financing Intermediary Industries Major Group 72 - Investment Intermediary Industries Major Group 73 - Insurance Industries Major Group 74 - Other Financial Intermediary Industries Division L - Real Estate Operator and Insurance Agent Industries Major Group 75 - Real Estate Operator Industries (Except Developers) Major Group 76 - Insurance and Real Estate Agent Industries Division M - Business Service Industries Major Group 77 - Business Service Industries Division N - Government Service Industries Major Group 81 - Federal Government Service Industries Major Group 82 - Provincial and Territorial Government Service Industries Major Group 83 - Local Government Service Industries Major Group 84 - International and Other Extra-Territorial Government Service Industries Division O - Educational Service Industries Major Group 85 - Educational Service Industries Division P - Health and Social Service Industries Major Group 86 - Health and Social Service Industries Division Q - Accommodation, Food and Beverage Service Industries Major Group 91 - Accommodation Service Industries Major Group 92 - Food and Beverage Service Industries Division R - Other Service Industries Major Group 96 - Amusement and Recreational Service Industries Major Group 97 - Personal and Household Service Industries Major Group 98 - Membership Organization Industries Major Group 99 - Other Service Industries Appendix E The Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Major Groups 201 202 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Appendix F SUMMARIES BASED ON INDUSTRY SECTOR HUMAN RESOURCE STUDIES Automotive Parts Sectoral Training Council Nancy Jackson or Mel Soucie, Tel: (416) 477-6909 Trends, Developments or Technological Changes Implications for Human Resources or the Labour Market • Electronic data interchange (EDI), just-in-time production (JIT), management information systems (MIS), and highly evolved financial analysis. • Support staff capable of using a computer and knowledge of production, shipping and invoicing procedures. • Flatter organizational structure, trend to self­ management, skill mix of the work force upgraded. • Management will be a smaller proportion of the work force, managers will have to know all facets of product and process technology, and will play more of an advisory role than direct supervisor role. • Technology has changed the production process, pressures of research and development demand greater capability in product development. • CAD, CAM, hydraulics, robotics and CNC equipment, interdependency of electricity, electronics, machinery and mechanics. • Job rotation, Statistical Process Control (SPC), demand for increased productivity and quality leading to more workplace communication. • Strong need for computer, robotics and electronics technicians; the greatest demand forecast was for mechanical engineers; absolute number of engineers projected to grow +7 percent by 1995. • Employers predict their skilled trade requirements will increase +22 percent by 1995, largest demand will be for mechanics /machinists (+54 percent) and tool-and-die makers (+25 percent). • Greatest absolute increase in semi-skilled workers is projected to be among the production machinists (+46 percent) and moulders (+25 percent). • Role of unskilled work force will continue to decline. Appendix F Summaries Based on Industry Sector Human Resource Studies 203 Canadian Automotive Repair a nd Service Council (CARS) 440 Laurier Ave. West, Suite 3' 0, Ottawa, Ontario K1R 7X6 Mike McGrath, President , Tel: (613) 782-2402 Trends or Developments or Technological Changes Implications for Human Resources or Labour Market • National standards branch established to develop, set and monitor national industry apprenticeship training standards in consultation with Canadian Council of Directors of Apprenticeship. • Automotive aftermarket will have the right people with the right skills to keep pace with technology. • Lifelong learning is a must; upgrade training, etc. • Standards also being developed in areas of upgrade training, specialization training, certification and accreditation. • CARS Knowledge Network established to address training needs for automotive trainers, to share information and to manage the distribution of industry equipment to the training schools. • Joint industry, education and worker-led training initiatives are implanting a strategic approach to training within the sector. • Sector employees have a real and proactive voice in the planning and delivering of industry­ employee jointly developed solutions to the sector's training and human resource issues. • CARS Institute established to promote opportunities for and recognition of professional development for those working in Canada's motive power industry. 204 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Canadian Aviation Maintenance Council Daniel Verreault, Tel: (613) 727-8272 Trends, Developments or Technological Changes Implications for Human Resources or the Labour Market • Phenomenon of aging aircraft leads to major structural repairs and modifications. • Estimates suggest aviation maintenance industry (AMI) will require 10,000 to 13,000 new workers by year 2000. Heavier demand in medium to long term not short term. • Slow growth in aircraft use due to current economic slowdown and industry shakeout. • Global competition for maintenance — international flights can be serviced anywhere in the world. • Newer generation of aircraft types equals higher proportion of avionic components. • Many aircraft in fleets in year 2000 are already in the air or under construction. • Computer-aided techniques have led to new developments in aircraft dynamics. • By year 2000 composites in structure will have replaced metal by 75 percent — expected improvement in fibres, bonding materials, design and non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques. • Engines of the future will use broad range of new alloys and composites in fan blades and cowlings. More electronic components in engines. • By 2000, high-pressure hydraulics, fibre optics, fly-by-wire, flat panels, high speed bi-directional data buses, voice control and diagnostic and flight envelope protection will be commonplace in new aircraft. • Safety regulations affect maintenance schedules. • Adoption of new technology will be gradual and evolutionary. • Shortages predicted for avionics technicians, aircraft mechanics, NDT technicians and interior refurbishers. • For short to medium term only, shortage of skilled sheet metal and structural technicians expected. • Minimum requirements for entry into aircraft maintenance skilled trades are rising. Need to interpret technical drawings and manuals, use problem solving and have manual dexterity. • Constant need for skills upgrading, need to cross-train workers. • Expansion of training to cover non-licensed trades and skills upgrading. • Need to train the trainer. • Shift from full-time training to delivery of continuous education model. • Those working on aircraft will require basic avionics skills, have to work with a variety of materials and be involved in wider range of tasks. • Those working in component shops will be immensely specialized — repair and overhaul of avionic components will rest with shop specialists. • Number of workers employed as welders and mechanics will remain relatively small. • Management of maintenance operations will be assisted by advances in information technologies. Appendix F Summaries Based on Industry Sector Human Resource Studies 205 Canadian Broadcasting Industry (National Sectoral Council for Culture) Susan Annis, Tel: (613) 238-3561 Trends, Developments or Technological Changes Implications for Human Resources or the Labour Market • Digital video compression, expansion of channel capacities, greater computerization of program production and administration, more automation and robotics, increased computerization of traffic control. • Slow growth of advertising. • Decrease in local and in-house production. • Downsized equipment. • Improved management skills needed. • Widescreen production. • Fewer people required to use equipment, higher level entry skills. • Script-writing aids, simulation software, digital, non-linear editing, interactive media applications. • Increased digital audio production, fewer radio stations, audio services by cable. • More co-productions. • Joint operating arrangements, multi-skilling in staff. • Contract production, combination of technical and creative skills needed. • Need for more specialization, fewer local services. 206 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Sectoral Skills Council for the Electrical and Electronics Manufacturing Industry Greg Murtagh, Tel: (613) 567-3036 Trends, Developments or Technological Changes Implications for Human Resources or the Labour Market • Rapid growth in the field. • Numerous choices for career development and advancement. • Dramatic increase in global competition. • Technological change and foreign competition from United States, Korea and Japan. • Computerized production schedules, new emphasis on quality control. • Development of training initiatives and improved linkage with community colleges. • Co-operation between management and unions in developing retraining for employees. • Flatter corporate structure resulting in decreased vertical movement and more lateral movement. Hence, the need for wider skill sets and greater flexibility. • Introduction of self-managed teams. • Mid-skill jobs disappearing, squeezed by high-skilled and unskilled jobs. • New employment opportunities for those who specialize in maintaining and improving product quality. • Wages over 20% above the Canadian average and union contracts provide benefits and security. • Train to keep updated and prepare for future jobs by learning portable skills. • Expect to work on training committees. • Increasing demand for higher skills. • Increasing demand for human skills e.g., communications, project management. • Computers, robots, CAD/CAM. Appendix F Summaries Based on Industry Sector Human Resource Studies 207 Canadian Council for Human Resources in the Environment Industry Grant Trump, Suite 650, 1040 7th Ave. S.W., Calgary, Alberta T2P 3G9 Tel: (403) 233-0748; Fax: (403) 269-9544 Trends, Developments or Technological Changes Implications for Human Resources or the Labour Market • Environmental legislation is driving demand for products and services. • There is a need for technical specialists, particularly engineers with environmental skills. • It is difficult for the industry to keep up with all the technological and regulatory changes taking place. • Managers and employees need to upgrade their skills and knowledge constantly. • Companies will have to expand the range of services and products and move from control to prevention. • There is a shortage of project management skills, particularly for site remediation projects. • Canadian firms can expect competition from U.S., Japanese and European companies. • Many segments of the industry have experienced recent rapid growth, in the order of double-digit rates. • Small fast growing companies comprise the majority of firms in the industry. • There is a shortage of key technical specialists. • There is declining enrolment in technical programs and a lack of understanding of the industry by youth. • By 1995, there will be a need for an estimated 5,000 to 7,000 workers, of which 2,000 to 3,000 will be skilled workers. • Some of the specific skills and occupations which will likely be needed include: - Hydrogeologists: instrumental in the design and assessment of landfill sites, clean up of hazardous toxic waste sites, ground water contamination and site decommissioning. - Environmental Scientists: to perform environmental impact assessments and audits, and to manage site clean-up projects. - Air Quality Specialists: to gather and analyze air samples, as well as develop methodologies for air quality analysis and implement solutions for air pollution control. • Employment of technically skilled environment workers outside the industry will increase an estimated two percent (300 to 400 workers) by 1995. Seventy percent of companies will actively recruit from universities, competing with the environment industry for graduates. 208 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Canadian Restaurant and Foodservices Association Tei: (416) 923-8416 Trends, Developments or Technological Changes implications for Human Resources or the Labour Market • Last 20 years seen growth of fast-food sector and contract and social catering sector and emergence of Canadian chefs in international culinary competitions. • Demand for workers between the year 1989 and 2000 estimated to increase 25.8 percent. • More diet-conscious menus and health food. Higher taxes, responsibility for monitoring drinking impaired. • More money spent on restaurant meals mainly attributed to increased participation of women in the work force and single-person households. • New technology can result in increased productivity and cost control but it has not had a marked impact on labour use patterns or skill requirements. • Reduced labour supply of young people and immigrants wanting to work in the food services industry. • Most people entering the food service industry have little or no formal training. • Employers first concern when hiring for most positions is work ethic and personality. • Weak supervisory skills and lack of training add to unacceptable turnover rates. • Training in human resource management has reduced turnover and improved recruitment and retention more than culinary training has. • Increased productivity needed to compensate for reduced labour supply and to improve wage levels. Forum for International Trade Training (FITT) 55 Metcalfe St., Suite 1160, Ottawa, Ontario K1P6N4 Anne Wells, Dieter Hollweck (613) 238-4000 Trends, Developments or Technological Changes Implications for Human Resources or the Labour Market • Partnership trends and training trends support the growth potential in international competition. • Five programs are available. Pilot courses were introduced in five provinces across Canada in 1993. They end with a locally written national examination. • Small- and medium-sized businesses need to be equipped with the skills required to compete in the lucrative markets outside Canada's borders. • FITT is establishing national professional training standards in international business to yield qualified and certified graduates. Appendix F • Specialization needed in the following areas: - global entrepreneurship; - international marketing; - international trade finance; - international physical distribution, international trade research; - legal aspects of international trade; and - international trade management. Summaries Based on Industry Sector Human Resource Studies 209 Impression 2000 - Graphic Arts Training Council (Printing) Suite 101, 5407 Eglinton Ave. W., Etobicoke, Ontario M9C 5K6 Pamela Menchions, Tel: (416) 621-2619 Trends, Developments or Technological Changes Implications for Human Resources or the Labour Market • Amalgamation of smaller unions. • Fewer workers needed. • Conventional departmental distinctions may be blurring. • More management level training. • Scanning technology use is spreading in the industry. • Standardized apprenticeship programs, nationalized training standards. • Improved training services from suppliers. • Equipment which combines images and composes pages electronically. • Laser platemaking for filmless printing, high­ speed laser printers. • Paper handling equipment, heat-set units, high­ speed and press capacity. • Cross-training of workers to understand the whole process, not just their part, e.g., administrative staff to learn about production process, press person to understand pre-press and bindery. • Need to be expert in co-ordinating communications with customers. • Colour work will become more pervasive. • Direct purchasing from customer as opposed to through ad agencies. • Strategic alliances between specialists to offer one-stop shopping to customers. • Systems analysis skills for developing and troubleshooting. • Creative graphic designers trained in computers as opposed to computer technicians trained in design. 210 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Canadian Council for Horticulture Bob Tangerloo, Tel: (819) 997-9217 Trends, Developments or Technological Changes Implications for Human Resources or the Labour Market • Canada had state-of-the-art greenhouses with leading edge technology: computerization, integrated pest management, improvements in green house construction, new growing media and climate control. • Requirement for higher skill levels of the lead managers or skilled employers: - computer and electronic application and maintenance of new equipment and systems; - higher analytical skills and general business management skills. (Market research will become more important as industry becomes global); and - emergence of individuals with narrow specialist skills to provide to a broad base of growers. • Global competition has forced many growers to be flexible in response to rapidly changing markets. • Experts predict that technology will outpace industry's adoption of the new methods. • Applied technology will be seen in: - development of crop-specific, precise computer models to optimize energy input and yield returns; - automation of harvesting; - nutrient-dosing systems; - rock wool, peat bag and nutrient film techniques (NFT); - recirculation nutrient systems; - increased use of biocontrol for disease and insect problems; and - innovative plant-training systems to reduce labour inputs per plant. • The development of closed irrigation systems, which permit the complete recycling of leached water and all its impurities, will become a legislated requirement in many areas of Canada as will test wells for monitoring ground water contamination. • Greenhouse floriculture and vegetable sectors have been growing rapidly. • Knowledge of principles involved in new crop development techniques in areas of biotechnology and mass propagation. • For progressive growers, the focus for next 10 years will be on cost-effectiveness, increased efficiency. • Piecework pay scales may develop due to computerized labour records relative to productivity records. • Demand for managers with strong background in entomology and plant pathology to address issues of reduced use of pesticides and chemicals. • Private sector companies will evolve to take over some specialized services traditionally provided by government, e.g., plant propagation, technology and pest control services, service and repair of the new technologies. • Number of semi-skilled workers will probably decline with some semi-skilled occupations disappearing. Appendix F Summaries Based on Industry Sector Human Resource Studies 211 Marine Sector Training Council John Fuchs, Tel: (613) 235-1455 Trends, Developments or Technological Changes Implications for Human Resources or the Labour Market • Transport Canada forecasts future demand for marine transportation to remain static until 1995. • The industry will soon face a shortage of qualified senior deck officers and qualified engineering officers — 37 percent of crew members are over 45 years old. • Reduction in number of marine carriers resulted from shift and decline in world markets for grain, iron ore, coal, lumber, and pulp and paper and smaller government-imposed fishing quotas, increased, costly regulations. • Demand for services expected to remain unchanged in Atlantic Canada (with the exception of a fishing fleet demand which will decrease). Central Canada will stay the same, and west coast will increase somewhat. • Males represent 92 percent of on-board vessel employees. Eighty-four percent of women in the field occupy positions in the steward's department. • Existing deck and engineer departments may not provide adequate replacement source for senior officers. Western Canada can expect greatest need to attract qualified personnel in future. • Marine training may move to using new technology in form of bridge and engine room simulators. • May be more emphasis by shipowners on management training for marine officers. • Technological change has resulted in increased vessel productivity and reduction of crew size in the last decade (an example is self-unloading vessels). • Technology is not expected to have a major impact on the industry during the next decade. • Exceptions are some new vessels, for example the B.C. Ferries, which will require advanced skills in electronics and computers. • New technologies include automatic gauging systems, closed loading systems, automatic valves, stainless steel holds, electronic charting and pollution monitoring. 212 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Software Human Resources Council Ann McKague, Tel: (416) 861-9300 Trends, Developments or Technological Changes Implications for Human Resources or the Labour Market • Mainframe environment will not disappear overnight, but no growth anticipated in number of large mainframe shops. • Number of software workers is projected to continue to grow at double digit annual rates to 250,000 or more by 1995. • New developments will be end-user driven; packaged solutions will grow; significant increase in the distribution of applications and application systems; increased use of communications; out­ sourcing of new applications; and continued development of better tools for systems development. • The proportion of women in software-related occupations will not increase to match their overall increase in the labour force, leading to a gender imbalance. • Move toward “standard” hardware and operating systems platforms. • New methods of systems development including reuse and re-engineering of existing code; new approaches to preparing languages, for example “object-oriented" languages; use of new technologies for systems specifications and development, such as expert systems for systems development and formal specification languages. • New knowledge workers. • Impact of “global" economy, market for software products is international. • Employment growth projected to be highest in the service group, a little lower in the product and embedded categories. • Due to training needs and lack of experienced workers, software-related workers are more likely to change employers. Mobility between employers is somewhat high, and there is a high degree of interindustry mobility. • Two sections of the software industry: developers of software products and sales and service (e.g., Corel, Cognos) and users of the products and services, called in-house software (e.g., banks, government, manufacturers, hospitals, etc.). • Types of skills needed: real-time control software and telecommunications knowledge; programmer with geophysics knowledge; technical architects with experience; engineering experience; knowledge of newer technologies with communication skills and experience; technical skills and consultancy experience; software development skills and knowledge of user interface; software engineers; industrial electronics; specialization in assembler programming. • Effective communications and interpersonal skills. • Highly technical skills and knowledge in a specialized area other than software are required in a single individual. \ppendix F Summaries Based on Industry Sector Human Resource Studies 213 National Tourism Human Resource Council Wendy Swedlove, Tel: (613) 954-3979 Trends, Developments or Technological Changes Implications for Human Resources or the Labour Market • Growing tendency to diversify in order to generate cash flow year-round instead of only seasonal. • More employment opportunities year round. • Over 500 programs devoted to tourism in Canadian colleges and universities. • Both small-business and large international corporations. • Major growth industry in the world. • Most adventure travel sector most of these businesses are young and small but growing steadily. • Job openings particularly for cooks, chefs, and food and beverage servers. • Upward movement within the industry can be rapid. • Large number of supervisory and management positions available — 75,000 over the next decade. • Tourism-related employment increase of 275,000 over next decade. • Business opportunities for those who wish to serve the tourism industry itself - research, advertising, education, planning, and information management and distribution. • Training available for national standards certification for cross-Canada mobility. 214 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Human Resource Council for the Trucking Industry Bruce Richards, Te: (416) 844-4255 Trends, Developments or Technological Changes Implications for Human Resources or the Labour Market • 97% of truck drivers are male, 3% are female, median age of drivers is 36.6 and 63% have no certificate or diploma. • Husband-wife teams, easier handling units, mechanical loading and unloading, driver assists and shorter runs have positive impact on number of women attracted to field. • Deregulation has been accompanied by heavy competition and increasing hauls to the United States. • For-hire trucking is consolidating in response to changing markets and deregulation. Medium-sized firms are vulnerable to takeovers. Fifty percent of current firms won't be in operation in five years. • Transport Canada data predicts growth in the industry of just over 25 percent by 1996. • Technological changes include: - improvements in ride quality, vehicle controls, heating, ventilation, air conditioning, visibility and noise; - on-board computer systems, satellite-based communications and tracking systems; - in-vehicle routing advice systems with synthesized voice and video display; - video display of electronic maps; - enhanced real-time traffic conditions imposed on electronic routes; and - computerized offices for billing, inventory and dispatching. Appendix F • On-board electronics have added some management duties to drivers' tasks. • Safety regulations and more border crossings will increase paperwork. • Customer relations will become more important as specialized niches arise and same driver returns to the same customer many times. • Basic computer literacy and arithmetic skills are important. • A need is estimated for an additional 34,000 Class a drivers over the next 10 years. • Shortage of well-qualified drivers is most critical in long-haul drivers. • Shortage of well-qualified drivers is most critical in Southern Ontario, Alberta and British Columbia. Summaries Based on Industry Sector Human Resource Studies 215 Human Resource in the Upstream Oil and Gas industry Contact through Human Resources Development Canada, Tel: (819) 997-1088 Trends, Developments or Technological Changes Implications for Human Resources or the Labour Market • Major downsizing due to decline in industry prices, decline in investment, exploration and new revenues. • By the year 2000, demand for human resources will be between 6 percent and 32 percent lower than in 1991. • Further mergers and acquisitions in 1990s to reach optimal size for efficiency. • If exploration and development remain flat, age distribution will be a problem. • New technology categories: - computer-related - data bases - materials - methods/systems. • Large number of employees will face retirement at the same time. • May be inducements to retire later rather than earlier. • Career plateauing will be a serious concern in the future. • Need for ongoing training. Technical professionals will be called on to make business decisions. • Salary freezes leading to salaries coming in line with other industries. No study was available at the time of writing for the first four sector councils listed below. The Western Wood Products Forum is a provincial study and so not applicable to the national outlook. For further information on forthcoming studies or to order Human Resources in the British Columbia Wood Products Industry please contact Human Resources Development Canada, Labour Market Analysis and Macroeconomic Studies, 140 Promenade du Portage, Phase IV, 4th Floor, Hull, Quebec K1A 0J9 or the contact people listed below. Canadian Grocery Producers Forum Tim Catherwood (416) 675-1104 Canadian Professional Logistics Institute Victor Deyglio (416) 363-3005 Canadian Steel Trade and Employment Congress George Nakitsas (416) 480-1797 Joint Council on Resources for the Textile Industry Pierre Gagnon (613) 232-7195 Western Wood Products Forum (British Columbia) Christopher Luke (604) 681-8140 216 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Appendix G PROVINCIAL AND TERRITORIAL MINISTRIES WITH RESPONSIBILITIES FOR LABOUR MARKET INFORMATION British Columbia Ministry of Skills, Training and Labour Tel: (604) 387-3165 Fax: (604) 356-1124 Alberta Alberta Advanced Education and Career Development Tel: (403) 422-1794 Fax: (403) 422-0408 Saskatchewan Department of Education, Training and Employment Tel: (306) 787-6030 Fax: (306) 787-7392 Manitoba Manitoba Education and Training Tel: (204) 945-2211 Fax: (204) 945-8692 Ontario Ministry of Education and Training Tel: (416) 325-2929 Fax: (416) 324-3572 Quebec Ministère de l'éducation - Conseil des colleges Tel: (418) 646-5811 Fax: (418) 643-9019 New Brunswick Department of Advanced Education and Labour Tel: (506) 453-2597 Fax: (506) 453-3806 Nova Scotia Department of Education and Culture Tel: (902) 424-5605 Fax: (902) 424-0511 Prince Edward Island Department of Education and Human Resources Tel: (902) 368-4600 Fax: (902) 368-4663 Appendix G List of Ministries — Provincial and Territorial 217 Newfoundland Department of Education and Training Fax: (709) 729-0414 Tel: (709) 729-0414 Northwest Territories Department of Education, Culture and Employment Fax: (403) 873-0155 Tel: (403) 873-7529 Yukon Department of Education Tel: (403) 667-5141 218 Fax: (403) 667-4754 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Appendix H RESOURCES FOR FUTURE TRENDS, CAREERS, WORKPLACE REALITIES This bibliography was produced by Kathleen Goldstrum, York Student Career Centre, under the auspices of the Canadian Career Information Association (CCIA). It is constantly updated and is a good example of the kind of information available from the CCIA. Beck, Nuala. Shifting Gears - Thriving in the New Economy. HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. 1992. Boyett, Joseph J. Workplace 2000: The Revolution Reshaping American Business. Penguin Group. 1992. Canadian Occupational Projection System. Job Futures: An Occupational Outlook for Ontario. Human Resources Development Canada. April, 1991. Cera, Mary Jane, Marilyn Robinson and Corine Sanders. Creating Your Future. Activities to Encourage Thinking Ahead. Sheed and Ward, 1985. Chapman, Robert, Miriam Johnson and Robert Wegman. Work in the New Economy: Careers and Job Seeking into the 21st Century. Rev. ed. Alexandria, Virginia: American Association for Counselling and Development; Indianapolis: JIST Works, 1989. Davidson, James Dale and Lord William Rees-Mogg. The Great Reckoning: How the World Will Change in the Depression of the 1990s. Summit Books, 1991. Feather, Frank. Canada's Best Careers Guide. Thornhill, Ontario: Global Management Bureau, 1990. Feingold, S. Norman. Futuristic Exercises. Garrett Park MD: Garrett Park Press, 1989. Feingold, S. Norman, and Norma Reno Miller. Emerging Careers: New Occupations for the Year 2000 and Beyond. Garrett Park, MD: Garrett Park Press, 1983. Feingold, S. Norman, and Norma Reno Miller. New Emerging Careers Today, Tomorrow and in the 21st Century. Garrett Park MD: Garrett Park Press, 1988. Appendix H Resources for Future Trends, Careers, Workplace Realities 219 Harkavy, Michael. 101 Careers: a Guide to the Fastest Growing Opportunities. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1990. McDaniels, Carl. The Changing Workplace: Career Counselling Strategies for the 1990s and Beyond. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1989. Naisbitt, John, and Patricia Aburdene. Megatrends 2000 - Ten New Directions for the 1990s. Avon Books, 1990. Peters, Tom. Thriving on Chaos: Handbook for a Management Revolution. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. Zelinski, Ernie J. The Joy of Not Working. Visions International Publishing, 1991 (4th printing 1992). MAGAZINE The Futurist - Gives information on trends that shape our future. World Future Society. 4916 St. Elmo Ave., Bethesda, Maryland 20814, U.S.A. VIDEOS Jobs for the ‘90s - Helps students focus on the fastest-growing, most promising job fields for the 1990s. Uses the Holland Hexagon to help viewers match their skills and abilities to career categories. Conceptualizes jobs within and between categories and at different educational levels. Provides on-the-job interviews, describes each job's predicted employment opportunities over the next 10 years. Sunburst, 920 Mercer, Windsor, Ontario, N9A 7L2. The Sky’s the Limit - Careers of the Future. Prepared by the technology departments of several CAATS. Free. Contact Ellen deBoer (416) 944-4589. GM 2000 - Careers of the Future. Centennial College, General Motors. Aimed at Grade 7 to 10 students encouraging them to keep math and science. Free. Contact Pat Sautner, Patty Allen, Cathy Ramsay (416) 644-5000.' Haas, D. John. Future Studies in the K-12 Curriculum. Social Science Education Consortium. Boulder, Colorado, 1988. Haas, D. John. Teaching About the Future. Social Science Education Consortium. Boulder, Colorado, 1987. 220 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information REFERENCES Advisory Group on Working Time and the Distribution of Work (Human Resources Development Canada). (1994). Report on Working Time and the Distribution of Work. Alberta Advanced Education and Career Development. (1993). Understanding the Labour Market: a handbook for practitioners. Edmonton: Alberta Advanced Education and Career Development. Alfred, Diane. (Winter 1992). "Labour Market Trends." Occupational Outlook, B.C./Yukon Economic Services Branch, Human Resources Development Canada. Alfred, Diane. (1994). “Careers in Tourism.” Occupational Outlook, B.C./Yukon Economic Services Branch, Human Resources Development Canada. (Cat. No. RESB-BCYT-09-94E.) Alfred, Diane and Debbie Skoda. (December 1994) "Why it Pays to Stay in School." Economic Review, B.C./Yukon Economic Services Branch, Human Resources Development Canada. Alfred, Diane and Debbie Skoda. (Summer 1994). “The Class of ‘90: Where are They Now?” Occupational Outlook, B.C./Yukon Economic Services Branch, Human Resources Development Canada. Annual Report Employment Equity Act 1992. (1992). Human Resources Development Canada. Anthony, Stephen. (1992). “Preparing for a Brave New World with FITT.” Importworld, 2, 28-29. Bacigalupo, N. (1994). “Flexible Workforce Key Factor in Temporary Agencies ‘Boom.’” The Financial Post. December 1. Bartz, Schwandt and Hillmen. (1989). “Differences Between ‘T and D.’" Personnel Administrator, June, 164. Beck, Nuala. (1992). Shifting Gears - Thriving in the New Economy. Toronto: Harper Collins Publishers. Bergmann, Frithjof. (1994). Detroit Educational Television Foundation Curriculum: New Work for a New Generation. WTVC Channel 56, 7441 Second Blvd., Detroit, Ml 48202. (See also Williams). References 221 Bridges, William. (1994). Job Shift: How to Prosper in a Workplace Without Jobs. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. British Columbia Ministry of Skills, Training and Labour. B.C. College and Institute Student Outcomes Report. Annual. British Columbia Ministry of Skills, Training and Labour. Student Factpac. Annual. Brooke, Jeff. (1993). “Effects of Med School Cuts will be Felt Later.” The Medical Post, April 13. Campbell, Colin. (1994) Where The Jobs Are: Career Survival for Canadians In The New Global Economy. Canada Employment and Immigration Commission, Occupational and Career Information Branch. (1990). Ellis Chart, Comparative Chart of Apprenticeship Programs. Ottawa: Supply and Services Canada. Canadian Broadcasting Industry Human Resources Steering Committee. (1993). Human Resources in the Canadian Broadcasting Industry. Human Resources Development Canada. Canadian Labour Market and Productivity Centre. (1993). 1991 National Training Survey. Ottawa: CLMPC. CARS Insider. (1992). “Car Talk.” Fall. Drucker, Peter. (1992). “The New Society of Organizations.” Harvard Business Review. September-October, pp. 95-104 Economic Council of Canada. (1990). Good Jobs, Bad Jobs: Employment in the Service Economy. Economist, The. (1994). “The Downside.” September 17. Ettinger, Judith, editor. (1991 ). Improved Career Decision Making in a Changing World. Garrett Park, MD: Garrett Park Press. Gilmore & Associates. (1990). Compete to Win Research Report. Ottawa: Canadian Manufacturers Association. Globe and Mail. (1994) “Zap You’re Stupid.” October 28. Hammer, Charles and James Champy. (1993). “The Future of Middle Managers.” Interview. Management Review. September, pp. 42-54. 222 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Handy, Charles. (1992). The Age of Unreason. Cambridge: Harvard Business School Press. Haynes, Peter. (1994). “The Third Age.” The Economist. September 17. Herr, Edwin, L., and Stanley H. Cramer. (1988). Career Guidance and Counselling Through the Life Span - Systematic Approaches. Scott, Foresman and Company. Herr, Edwin L. (undated). Recommendations for the Improved Use of Labour Market Information in Secondary Schools. Pennsylvania State University. Human Resources Development Canada. Canadian Occupational Projection System. COPS Labour Market Outlook COPS Reference 1992 Projections. Human Resources Development Canada. Human Resources Development Canada. (1990a). LMI Handbook: A guide to local labour market information analysis. Ottawa; Department of Supply and Services. 2nd edition. Human Resources Development Canada, Working Group on Career Management in the Public Service. (1992). Career Management in the Public Service. Human Resources Development Canada. (1990b). Job Futures. 3rd edition. Ottawa: Human Resources Development Canada. Human Resources Development Canada. Manitoba Region and Manitoba Education and Training Labour Market Support Services. High Demand Occupations. Human Resources Development Canada. Economic Services, B.C./Yukon Territory Region. Occupational Outlook. (Spring 1993). Human Resources Development Canada, Ontario Region. The Occupational Quarterly. Human Resources Study Steering Committee, Upstream Oil and Gas Industry. (1992). Changes. Challenges. Choices. Human Resources in the Upstream Oil and Gas Industry. Ottawa: Human Resources Development Canada. Industry Canada. (1994). Agenda: Jobs and Growth, Building a More Innovative Economy. Ottawa. Lortie, Pierre. (1991). Science and Technology Policies for a Turbulent Environment. Canadian Business Bulletin, I, 6. References 223 Maxwell, Judith. (1993). "Globalization and Family Security." Family Security in Insecure Times, National Forum on Family Security, Canadian Council on Social Development. McIntyre, David. (1992). Training and Development 1991, Expenditures and Policies. Ottawa: Conference Board of Canada. McLaughlin, MaryAnn. (1992). Employability Skills Profile. Ottawa: Conference Board of Canada. Mohan, Marilyn and Gisalon. (1992). “Tourism-Related Employment in Canada.” Prepared for Industry, Science and Technology Canada-Tourism. National Steering Committee for the Human Resource Study of the Canadian Horticultural Industry. (1992). Horticulture Industry. Organizing for the Future. Human Resource Issues and Opportunities. National Report. Human Resources Development Canada. Picot, Garnett, John Baldwin and Richard Dupuy. (1994). “Have Small Firms Created a Disproportionate Share of New Jobs in Canada? A Reassessment of the Facts.” Ottawa: Statistics Canada. Pipa, Alison. (1989). Business Perspectives on the Economy, no.2 Short on Skills: Skilled Labour Shortages and the Canadian Economy. Ottawa: Canadian Labour Market and Productivity Centre. Ross, David P. (1993). Family Security in Insecure Times. National Forum on Family Security, Canadian Council on Social Development. Srebalus, David J., R. P. Marinelli and K. Messing. (1982). Career Development Concepts and Procedures. Monterey,CA: Brooks/Cole. Statistics Canada. (1992). Perspectives on Labour and Income, Autumn and Winter. Steering Committee for the Human Resource Study of the Aircraft Maintenance Industry. (1991 ). Human Resources in the Canadian Aircraft Industry. Human Resources Development Canada. Steering Committee of the Canadian Trucking Industry. (1990). Canadian Trucking Industry. Human Resource Challenges and Opportunities. Human Resources Development Canada. Steering Committee of the Canadian Automotive Parts Industry. (1991). Canadian Automotive Parts Industry Human Resource Study. Human Resources Development Canada. 224 Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information Steering Committee of the Environment Industry. (1993). Human Resources in the Environment Industry. Human Resources Development Canada. Steering Committee of the Software Industry. (1992). Software and National Competitiveness: Human Resource Issues and Opportunities. Human Resources Development Canada. Thompson, E.P. (1967). “Time, Work-Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism.” Past and Present. No. 38, 57. Toffler, Alvin. (1990). Powershift: knowledge, wealth, and violence at the edge of the 21st century. New York: Bantam Books. U.S. Department of Labor. (1991). What Work Requires of Schools. Washington: U.S. Department of Labor. Vancouver Sun. (1994). “Talking About My Generation.” January 24. Walsh, John. (1991 ). Tell me, what are you going to do when you leave school? Guelph, Ontario: University of Guelph. Williams, F. and C. McGreen. (1994). “New Work for a New Generation, Curriculum Guide.” The City for Youth New Work Series. Detroit Educational Television Foundation. (See also Bergmann). References 225 Courses for Career Development Practitioners • Making Career Sense of Labour Market Information is one of a number of professional development resources and curricula produced by the Canadian Guidance and Counselling Foundation. It can serve either as a "stand-alone" resource or as the text for the course of the same name. Interested readers are encouraged to seek out opportunities to pursue this training. Additional Courses Available Through CGCF • Building Better Career Futures A developmental career-building curriculum for working with youth in transition. • Career Counselling for Aboriginal Youth: The Journey Inward; The Journey Outward A program for assisting Aboriginal youth to explore career directions. • Constructivist Career Counselling An individual counselling program based on meaning-making theory. • Everyday Career Development Skills and strategies to infuse career development into the classroom. • Group Career Development An orientation to career development concepts and group facilitation skills through an experiential format. • Program Design and Evaluation A course combining self-study and application to assist practitioners in developing customized career programs. For further information, please contact: The Canadian Guidance and Counselling Foundation 202 - 411 Roosevelt Avenue Ottawa, Ontario K2A 3X9 Tel: (613) 729-6164 Fax: (613) 729-3515 e-mail: bd579@freenet.carleton.ca